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AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 
CHRONOLOGICALLY   ARRANGED 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE 
OLD  TESTAMENT 

CHRONOLOGICALLY  ARRANGED 

BY  / 

v/ 
HARLAN  CREELMAN,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    HEBREW    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 
AUBURN    THEOLOGICAL    SEMINARY 

WITH    A    FOREWORD    BY 

FRANK  KNIGHT  SANDERS,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

DIEECTOR   OF   THE   BOARB   OF   MISSIONARY   PREPARATION 

SOMETIME   WOOL8EY   PROFESSOR  OF  BIBLICAL 

LITERATURE   IN   YALE   UNIVERSITY 


NetD  gorfe 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1917 


All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1917, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  April,  1917, 


J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  <t  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


MY    WIFE 

JOSEPHINE   RICE   CREELMAN, 

IN    AFFECTIONATE    APPRECIATION    OF    ENCOURAGEMENT 

AND     COOPERATION     IN     ITS     PREPARATION, 

THIS    VOLUME    IS    DEDICATED 


FOREWORD 

It  is  one  of  the  happy  omens  of  a  brighter  future  in  regions 
of  rehgious  beUef  that  thoughtful  men  and  women  who  lay 
no  claim  to  first-rate  scholarship  are  yet  exercising  their 
unquestionable  right  to  make  judgments  of  their  own.  They 
are  less  content  than  ever  before  to  take  their  views  of  the 
Bible  and  of  its  teachings  at  second  hand.  They  furnish 
a  growing  audience  which  is  eager  to  follow  in  the  paths 
blazed  for  them  by  broadminded  explorers,  whos^  purpose 
is  to  make  a  way  for  others  rather  than  to  gain  individual 
distinction  in  discovery. 

This  Introduction  will  be  of  notable  service  to  those  who 
seek  to  master  for  themselves  the  reasons  for  the  conclusions 
of  reverent  modern  scholarship.  The  task  is  not  a  difficult 
one.  No  science  is  less  obscure  in  its  main  trends  and  appli- 
cations than  that  of  historical  criticism.  Common  sense 
plays  a  very  large  part  in  reaching  its  conclusions.  It  merely 
utilizes  in  the  interpretation  of  the  varied  literature  of  the 
Bible  those  accepted  canons  of  fair  inquiry  upon  which 
human  judgments  concerning  all  other  literary  growth  are 
based.  It  does  not  necessarily  confine  itself  to  those  rules 
or  methods.  It  may  be  as  deeply  spiritual  as  devotional 
study.  It  underlies,  in  fact,  the  richest  and  most  permanent 
advances  in  Biblical  knowledge  of  the  present  age.  Such 
work  as  that  of  Davidson,  George  Adam  Smith,  Moffatt, 
Bruce,  Skinner,  Bennett,  McFadyen,  and  Adeney  in  Great 
Britain  or  of  Harper,  McGiffert,  Kent,  Moore,  Smith,  Bur- 
ton, Baton  and  others  in  this  country,  —  interpretative  and 
historical  work  of  the  most  helpful  type,  which  has  developed 
a  love  of  Biblical  study  in  the  hearts  of  hundreds  of  thousands, 
—  is  absolutely  based  upon  a  broad,  generous,  historical 
criticism. 

This  volume  makes  a  place  for  itself  by  its  arrangement 
alone.  No  one  can  at  this  day  write  a  critical  Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament  which  will  be  at  once  helpful  and  very 
novel.     The  world  of  scholarship  has  excellent  tools  at  its 


viii  FOREWORD 

command.  But  the  larger  world  occupied  by  earnest  and 
thoughtful  Bibhcal  students  has  no  manual  which  meets 
its  needs  in  the  way  undertaken  by  this  work.  The  historical 
arrangement  of  the  subject-matter  is  of  very  great  value  to 
the  student.  It  contributes  to  the  easy  organization  and 
interpretation  of  the  whole  Bible.  Such  a  mastery  is  to  be 
greatly  craved  by  every  clear-headed  student,  since  every- 
one is  now  recognizing  the  indisputable  fact  that  the  Bible 
must  be  interpreted  as  a  whole,  in  order  to  be  safely  and 
sanely  interpreted  at  all.  The  arrangement  of  the  Old 
Testament  by  periods  and  the  critically  unified  considera- 
tion of  each  group  of  varied  Biblical  writings  which  chron- 
ologically belong  together  will  greatly  aid  in  the  clear  and 
final  grasp  of  the  essential  values  of  those  writings.  No  one 
can  fully  appreciate  Old  Testament  prophecy  or  wisdom  or 
law  or  even  poetry  without  the  cultivation  and  the  applica- 
tion of  the  historic  sense. 

Another  value  of  this  Introduction  will  be  its  clearness 
and  sanity.  It  is  not  at  all  true  that  the  acceptance  of 
critical  methods  and  principles  impairs  the  spirituality  of  the 
student  and  destroys  his  sense  of  real  religious  values.  There 
is  such  a  thing  as  the  maintenance  of  a  rich  and  free  religious 
experience  while  fearlessly  following  investigations  into  Bibli- 
cal facts.  This  volume  gives  expression  in  the  main  to  the 
opinions  which  men  and  women  may  hold  without  feeling 
that  they  have  lost  their  anchorage  and  are  drifting  into 
the  darkness.  It  is  also  quite  free  from  the  professional 
formulae  and  cryptic  s3niibolism  by  which  so  much  of  Bibli- 
cal criticism  has  been  made  unintelligible  to  average  readers 
of  the  Bible. 

I  take  it  as  a  very  great  privilege  that  I  have  been  per- 
mitted to  pen  these  words  in  introduction  of  the  master- 
work  of  my  long-time  fellowstudent,  colleague  and  friend. 

FRANK  K.  SANDERS. 

September,  1916. 


PREFACE 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  there  are  already  such  excellent 
Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament,  incorporating  the  re- 
sults of  modern  scholarship,  either  written  or  translated  by 
English-speaking  scholars,  some  word  of  explanation  is  due 
for  the  publication  of  another  book  on  this  subject.  The 
justification  of  such  an  attempt  is  found  in  the  specific  pur- 
pose and  arrangement  of  material  in  this  volume  as  compared 
with  the  usual  Old  Testament  Introduction.  This  is  indi- 
cated by  the  title.  The  customary  method  followed  in  In- 
troductions of  the  Old  Testament  has  been  to  deal  with  the 
different  books,  following  either  the  order  in  which  they 
occur  in  our  English  versions  {e.g.  Bennett),  or  according  to 
their  arrangement  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  {e.g.  Driver),^  or 
grouping  them  together  in  such  convenient  literary  divisions 
as  history,  prophecy  and  poetry,  etc.  {e.g.  Cornill).  In  dis- 
tinction from  such  plans  and  methods  this  Introduction 
discusses  and  classifies  the  Old  Testament  literature  from 
the  standpoint  of  history  and  chronology,  i.e.  the  different 
books,  or  sections,  or  chapters,  or  verses,  as  the  case  may  be, 
are  taken  up  in  chronological  sequence  as  they  relate  to 
definite  periods  of  Hebrew  history,  either  as  the  Old  Testa- 
ment furnishes  the  history  of  those  periods,  or  as  its  litera- 
ture had  its  origin  in  them. 

For  example,  the  narrative  material  of  the  Hexateuch,  which 
is  treated  in  the  Introduction  to  the  periods  of  Primitive  Times  to 
the  Conquest  of  Western  Palestine,  while  it  relates  to  these  periods 
and  describes  them,  is  composed  of  different  sources,  the  earliest 
of  which,  in  its  present  form,  is  considerably  later  than  the  latest 
of  these  periods.     (Cf.  pp.  20  ff.  with  13  ff.) 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Introduction  to  such  periods  as  those 
of  the  Divided  Kingdom  and  the  Exile  is  found  much  literature 

1  For  the  Jewish  order  of  Old  Testament  books,  cf.  p.  1,  n.  ^ 

ix 


X  PREFACE 

which  had  its  origin  within  the  years  which  define  their  beginning 
and  end.     (Cf.  pp.  85  ff.,  170  ff.) 

The  advantage  of  such  a  grouping  of  Old  Testament  his- 
tory and  literature  can  readily  be  seen  when  the  present  order 
of  the  Old  Testament  books  is  considered.  As  arranged  in 
the  English  versions,  they  may  be  grouped  conveniently  un- 
der the  following  general  classification  :  (a)  Historical  and 
Legal  (Genesis  to  Esther) ;  (b)  Poetical  (Job  to  Song  of 
Solomon) ;  and  (c)  Prophetical  (Isaiah  to  Malachi).  The 
first  group  contains  a  two-fold  historical  series,  partially 
parallel  (cf.  pp.  1  f.),  each  of  which  (leaving  out  the  legal 
portions  of  the  Pentateuch)  records  events  in  the  life  of  the 
Hebrews  in  historical  sequence. 

The  books  of  the  second  and  third  groups,  however,  do  not 
follow  an  exact  chronological  arrangement  as  they  are  at 
present  classified,  and  they  are  also  separated  from  their 
historical  setting,  which  is  found  in  the  first  collection  (i.e. 
the  historical  narratives).  Their  present  grouping  and 
position  in  the  Bible  were  determined  almost  entirely  by 
general  similarity  of  literary  characteristics,  as  poetry  and 
prophecy,  while  the  question  of  historical  (or  chronological) 
adjustment  was  not  taken  into  consideration.  Accord- 
ingly those  who  desire  to  follow  in  chronological  order,  not 
only  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  also  other 
portions,  as  they  belong  in  point  of  time  and  periods,  are 
placed  at  great  disadvantage  by  the  arrangement  of  the 
English  Bible.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  there  is  a  place  for 
an  Introduction  such  as  this  volume,  which  aims  to  serve  as 
a  guide  to  the  history  and  literature  of  the  Old  Testament, 
chronologically  arranged. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  value  of  such  an  arrangement  of 
the  contents  of  the  Old  Testament  is  self-evident  as  an  aid 
to  an  inteUigent  grasp  and  understanding  of  the  history,  of 
the  reUgious  teaching  and  the  progressive  revelation  of  the 
mind  and  will  of  God  to  His  ancient  people,  and  through 
them  to  the  world.  The  historical  setting  of  the  writings 
mentioned  above  in  the  second  and  third  groups  (especially 
the  latter  =  prophetic  Hterature)  greatly  assists  in  giving 
clearness  of  interpretation  and  vividness  of  impression  to 
them.     On  the  other  hand,  this  chronological  setting  in  many 


PREFACE  xi 

cases  supplies  most  valuable  supplemental  information  to  the 
historical  books.  Years  in  Israel's  history,  of  which  the 
historical  literature  furnishes  scanty  details  or  possibly  none 
at  all,  may  become  luminous  in  this  way,  chiefly  from  the 
prophetical  writings. 

A  good  illustration  of  this  is  the  light  which  is  thrown  upon  the 
reign  of  Jeroboam  II  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  from  the  prophe- 
cies of  Amos  and  Hosea.  The  book  of  Kings  devotes  only  seven 
verses  to  his  reign  (2  Ki.  14 :  23  ff .) ;  see  pp.  141  ff.     Cf .  also  p.  200. 

Prophecy  is  also  of  special  value  in  furnishing  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  social,  moral  and  religious  conditions  of  the 
nation,  as  well  as  of  the  inner  pohtical  movements  and  ten- 
dencies. 

At  the  end  of  each  of  the  periods,  to  which  the  different 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament  writings  belong,  there  is  found 
in  this  volume  an  outline  of  the  historical  narratives  relating 
to  the  particular  period,  and  the  hterature  belonging  to  it, 
arranged  in  chronological  order.  The  grounds  for  the  order 
followed  are  furnished  by  the  introductory  section  on  the 
historical  narratives  and  literature  of  each  period,  supple- 
mented by  the  notes  on  ''sources"  and  ''chronology"  in 
connection  with  the  outhne  of  the  Biblical  material.  This 
is  a  feature,  as  previously  noticed,  which  is  not  found  in 
the  standard  Introductions  of  the  present.  In  the  order 
adopted,  while  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  be  guided  by 
the  most  assured  results  of  modern  Biblical  scholarship, 
variant  views,  within  reasonable  limits,  are  also  given.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  there  is  practical  agreement  among  scholars 
to-day  in  reference  to  the  leading  questions  of  the  date  and 
sources  of  the  Old  Testament  books.  In  the  main  the  posi- 
tion of  the  contributors  of  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(HDB)  is  the  one  represented  in  this  volume. 

A  word  may  be  said  in  reference  to  the  classes  for  whom 
this  Introduction  has  been  especially  prepared. 

It  aims  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  text  book  for  classes  in 
Biblical  Literature  and  History  in  the  higher  institutions  of 
learning  (Colleges,  Universities  and  Theological  Seminaries). 
It  may  well  be  used  as  a  basis  for  the  instructor's  lectures, 
or  for  the  supplementary  employment  of  an  Old  Testament 


xii  PREFACE 

history,  since  it  presents  the  hterature  and  history  in  their 
chronological  arrangement.  This  also  will  be  an  obvious 
advantage  to  the  student.  For  his  benefit  especially  has 
been  incorporated  the  material  contained  in  the  smaller 
print  in  the  introductions  to  each  period,  as  well  as  the 
notes  on  ''composition  of  the  hterature,"  ''chronology," 
etc.,  in  connection  with  the  outline  of  the  Biblical  material 
given. 

This  volume  is  also  designed  for  the  use  of  the  busy  min- 
ister, who  may  desire  to  know  the  conclusions  of  modern 
scholarship.  It  will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  Vade-mecum  of 
the  Old  Testament  to  him.  By  the  aid  of  the  indices  any 
book  or  section  can  be  found,  with  the  reasons  for  the  histori- 
cal setting  given  to  it  supplied  in  this  Introduction. 

It  is  the  hope  as  well  of  the  author  that  it  will  prove  help- 
ful to  those  readers  and  students  of  the  Bible  who,  in  in- 
creasing numbers,  either  as  members  of  advanced  Bible 
classes  or  in  private  reading  and  study,  desire  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  results  of  scholarly  research,  as  it  has  deter- 
mined the  true  chronological  arrangement  of  the  Old 
Testament  history  and  literature.  This  volume  with  its  in- 
troductions to  each  period  and  outhnes  of  Biblical  material, 
if  used  in  conjunction  with  the  American  Revised  Version, 
with  its  divisions  of  the  chapters  into  paragraphs  and  its 
analysis  at  the  head  of  each  column,  will  furnish  sufficient  aid 
to  enable  any  one  to  read  the  Old  Testament  intelligently 
and  in  its  historical  order. 

As  this  book  is  not  for  Bibhcal  experts  but  for  readers  and 
students  of  the  English  Bible,  the  references  to  literature 
are  confined  to  books  in  the  English  language.  The  large 
volume  of  literature  in  Great  Britain  and  America  on  Bibli- 
cal subjects  in  recent  years  makes  this  source  sufficiently 
comprehensive  and  authoritative  for  all  practical  purposes. 
Such  Biblical  dictionaries  as  Hastings  and  the  Encyclopaedia 
Bibhca ;  the  commentaries  in  the  series  of  the  International 
Critical,  Westminster,  Century  Bible,  the  Bible  for  Home 
and  School ;  also  the  best  volumes  of  the  Expositor's  Bible 
and  the  Cambridge  Bible  series ;  the  scholarly  productions 
of  the  International  Theological  Library ;  besides  numerous 
works  on  Old  Testament  History,  Archaeology,  Introduction 
and  Theology  and  general  interpretation   (many  of  which 


PREFACE  xiii 

though  of  a  popular  character  are  also  scholarly),  —  are 
sufficient  evidence  of  the  valuable  field  of  literature  in  EngHsh 
which  the  student  has  to  draw  upon  to-day. 

The  various  notes  on  chronology,  composition  of  the  nar- 
ratives and  other  hterary  productions,  etc.,  in  connection  with 
the  outline  of  the  Biblical  material  (as  chronologically  ar- 
ranged at  the  end  of  each  period  in  this  volume),  have  been 
condensed  as  much  as  possible,  considering  the  great  mass  of 
critical  material  which  had  to  be  sifted,  in  order  to  bring  the 
book  within  reasonable  compass.  This  has  meant,  to  some 
extent  at  least,  a  sacrifice  of  literary  form  in  the  interest 
of  economy  of  space.  Only  what  have  been  regarded  as  the 
most  important  critical  problems  have  been  noted  and 
discussed.  Others  which  might  have  been  considered,  had 
it  seemed  advisable  to  extend  the  volume,  have  either  been 
omitted  entirely  or  references  have  been  given  to  authorities 
where  their  discussion  may  be  found. 

For  the  same  reason  other  topics,  such  as  ^'Hterary  paral- 
lels^' with  the  BibHcal  material  (e.g.  between  the  Creation 
and  Flood  stories  of  Genesis  and  the  early  Babylonian 
narratives,  and  in  other  places),  which  might  have  been  in- 
cluded legitimately  in  a  work  of  this  character,  have  been 
omitted. 

While  a  wide  range  of  literature  has  been  carefully  con- 
sulted in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  the  references  to 
authorities  in  the  foot-notes  and  elsewhere  are  confined 
generally  to  a  few  selected  out  of  many. 

The  number  of  abbreviations  to  designate  the  names  of 
books  and  authors  is  somewhat  limited.^  It  is  believed  that 
this  will  add  to  the  utility  of  the  book  by  saving  the  student's 
time  and  avoiding  confusion.  The  abbreviations  which 
are  used  are  to  authorities  which  are  constantly  referred  to 
throughout  the  book;  e.g.  LOT  =  Driver's  '^ Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament." 

It  may  be  added  that  questions  relating  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  text,  or  the  literature  (except  as  they  bear  on  the 
problem  of  sources),  or  of  the  historicalness  of  the  narratives, 
are  strictly  outside  the  province  of  this  volume.     Such  data 

1  For  this  suggestion  the  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  H.  P.  Smith, 
cf .  his  Old  Testament  History,  p.  xxiv. 


XIV  PREFACE 

as  have  a  bearing  on  the  chronological  sequence  of  the 
narratives  and  the  historical  setting  of  the  literature,  and  as 
a  part  of  this  whatever  relates  to  the  demarcation  of  the 
sources  of  the  Biblical  writings,  are  the  almost  exclusive 
matters  discussed  and  employed. 

This  book,  which  to  a  considerable  extent  has  grown  out 
of  the  practical  needs  of  the  classroom,  has  been  in  prepara- 
tion for  a  number  of  years,  as  time  has  been  available  in 
connection  with  professional  duties.  Its  inception  dates 
from  the  years  the  writer  was  Instructor  in  Biblical  Liter- 
ature in  Yale  University  (1893-1899).  The  bulk  of 
the  work,  however,  was  done  during  his  professorship  in 
the  Congregational  College  of  Canada,  Montreal  (1899- 
1908).  This  in  turn  has  been  carefully  revised  several  times 
since. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  Introduction  a  wide  range  of 
literature  has  been  consulted,  as  is  indicated  by  the  list  of 
references  on  pp.  xxiii-xxix.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  it 
is  largely  under  obligation  to  these  authorities.  Originality 
of  investigation  is  not  claimed  in  this  work.  Its  object  is 
largely  to  incorporate  and  make  available  the  results  of 
the  best  modern  scholarship  in  such  form  as,  it  is  hoped,  will 
be  helpful  to  intelligent  Old  Testament  study. 

In  addition  the  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  special  per- 
sonal indebtedness  to  Professor  Irving  F.  Wood,  Ph.D.,  of 
Smith  College,  who  during  the  initial  stages  of  preparation 
examined  the  manuscript  and  gave  helpful  criticism;  and 
to  Professor  Juhus  A.  Bewer,  Ph.D.,  of  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  who  more  recently  examined  the  manu- 
script and  made  a  number  of  valuable  suggestions,  which 
have  been  adopted,  regarding  the  headings  and  classifica- 
tion of  notes  in  connection  with  the  outline  of  the  Bibhcal 
material  at  the  end  of  each  period.  His  thanks  are  chiefly 
due  to  his  friend  of  many  years,  Rev.  Dr.  Frank  K.  Sanders 
of  New  York  City,  formerly  Dean  of  the  Theological  Faculty 
of  Yale  University,  for  encouragement  to  undertake  the  task, 
for  important  suggestions  at  different  times  during  the 
course  of  preparation,  and  for  his  great  kindness  and  valued 
service  in  carefully  reading  the  completed  manuscript.  For 
valuable  suggestions  in  connection  with  the  correction  of 
the  proof  the  author  is  greatly  indebted  to  Rev.  Philip  S. 


PREFACE  XV 

Moxom,    D.D.,   Springfield,   Mass.,   and  Mr.   William  D. 
Pennyp acker,  Richmond,  Va. 

It  is  with  a  strong  conviction  that  some  such  work  as  this 
is  needed  that  this  Introduction  is  published.  This  convic- 
tion has  grown  out  of  the  writer's  experience  as  a  teacher  of 
the  Old  Testament,  supplemented  by  frequent  requests  on 
the  part  both  of  laymen  and  clergymen  to  recommend  some 
book,  which  would  aid  the  reader  and  student  of  the  Old 
Testament  to  follow  it  in  chronological  order.  That  this 
volume  may  serve  to  meet  this  need  is  the  author's  earnest 
hope.  If  it  in  some  measure  does,  he  will  feel  repaid  for  the 
time  and  labor  expended  upon  it. 


HARLAN  CREELMAN. 


AsHMORE  Lodge,  Worthington,  Mass. 
September,  1916. 


CONTENTS 


List  op  Reference  Literature  Cited. 

List  op  Abbreviations  Used 

General  Introduction  to  the  Historical  Writings 


I-IV.   A. 


I-IV.   B. 


1.  The  Two-fold  Historical  Series     . 

2.  The  Composition  of  Historical  Literature     . 

3.  The  Moral  and  Religious  Significance  of  Histor- 

ical Literature 

Narrative  History 

Didactic  History 

Prophetic,  Priestly  and  Deuteronomic  History 

4.  The  Historical  Value  of  the  Narrative  Material 
a.  Chronological  Considerations  . 
h.  Literary  Considerations    .... 

5.  The  Distinction  between  the  Narrative  Description 

of  a  Period  and  the  Literature  Originating  in  It 

Introduction  to  the  Narratives  (=  the  Hexa- 
teuch)  Relating  to  the  Periods  from  Primi- 
tive Times  to  the  Conquest  of  Palestine 

1.  The  Sources  of  the  Hexateuch 

a.  The  Prophetic  Narrative,  J      .         .         . 

b.  The  Prophetic  Narrative,  E     . 

c.  The  Priestly  Source,  P     .         .         .         . 

d.  The  Deuteronomic  Source,  D  (and  D^ )   . 

2.  The  Dates  of  the  Different  Sources 

3.  The  Process  of  Combining  the  Sources 

4.  The  Chronological  Arrangement  of  the  Narrative 

Material  as  Related  to  its  Sources    . 

5.  The  Poems  of  the  Hexateuch 


PAGE 

.  xxiii-xxLx 
xxxi-xxxiv 
1-12 
1-2 
2-3 

3-7 
4 

4 
5-7 

7-11 
7-9 

9-11 

11-12 


13-29 
13-20 
13-16 
14-16 
17-18 
19-20 
20-23 
23-26 

26-29 
,      29 


The  Chronological  Outline  op  the  Biblical 
Material  ( =  the  Hexateuch,  Largely)  Re- 
lating TO  THE  Periods  from  the  Primitive 
Times  to  the  Conquest  of  Palestine         .         .     30-44 

I.   Primitive  Times,  Gen.  1-11 30 

II.   Patriarchal  Period,  Gen.  12-50       ....     30-33 
A.  Narratives  Relating  to  Abraham,  Gen.  12 :  1- 

25:18 30-31 

xvii 


XVlll 


CONTENTS 


B.  Narratives  Relating  to  Isaac  and  Jacob,  Gen. 

25  :  19-38 :  30 

C.  Narratives  Relating  to  Joseph  in  Egypt,  Gen. 

39-50  

III.  The   Exodus   and    Desert   Wanderings,   Ex.   to 
Deut.  in  part 

A.  The  Oppression,  Ex.  1 :  1-12 :  36  . 

B.  Exodus  to  Sinai,  Ex.  12  :  37-18  :  27       . 

C.  Israel  at  Sinai,  Ex  19-Num.  10 :  10,  in  part . 

D.  From  Sinai  to  Palestine,  Num.  10 :  11  to  Deut. 

34,  in  part         ...... 

IV.  The  Conquest  of  Western  Palestine,  Josh.  + 
Judg.  1:1-2:5 

V.  A.  Introduction  to  the  History  and  Literature  op 
THE  Period  op  the  Judges,  Judges;  1  Sam. 
1-7,  ETC.        ........ 

1.  The  Book  of  Judges 

2.  The  Books  of  Samuel   .    ' 

V.  B.  The  Chronological  Outline  of  the  Biblical 
Material  of  the  Period  of  the  Judges 

A.  The  Judges  Proper,  Judg.  2  :  6-16  :  31 

B.  The  Judges,  Supplementary,  Judg.  17-21    . 

C.  The  Judgeship  of  Samuel,  1  Sam.  1-7 

VI.  A.  Introduction  to  the  History  and  Literature  op 
THE  Period  of  the  United  Kingdom,  1  Sam.  8- 
2  Sam.  24  +  1  Ki.  1-11,  etc. 

1.  Historical  Writings  Relating  to  this  Period 

A.  1  Samuel  8  ff 

B.  The  Books  of  Kings 

C.  The  Books  of  Chronicles 

2.  Literature  Possibly  Belonging  to  this  Period 

A.  Davidic  Psalms       .... 

B.  Solomonic  Proverbs 

C.  The  Blessing  of  Jacob,  Gen.  49 :  2-27 

D.  E.  The   Balaam  Poems  in  Num.  23-24 

15:1-18       


72  (Cf. 


Ex 


VI.   B.  The  Chronological  Outline  of  the  Biblical  Ma- 
terial OF  the  Period  of  the  United  Kingdom 

1.  Saul's  Reign,  1  Sam.  8-2  Sam.  1,  etc.   . 

2.  A.  David'sReignasKingof  Judah,  2Sam.2-4,etc. 
B.   (a)   David's  Reign  over  United  Israel,  2  Sam. 

5-8,  etc 


32 

32-33 

33-41 
33-34 
34-36 
36-38 

39-41 

41-44 


45-49 
45-47 
47-49 

50-54 
50-52 
52-53 
53-54 


55-73 
55-68 
55 
55-62 
63-68 
68-73 
68-72 
116  ff.) 
72-73 

73 

74-84 

74-76 

76 

76-77 


CONTENTS 


XIX 


VII.  A. 


(6)  Events  Especially  Connected  with  David' 

PAGE 

3 

Family,  2  Sam.  9-20  + 1  Ki.  1 : 1-2 : 1 1,  etc 

77-79 

(c)    Supplementary  Details  of  David's  Reign 

2  Sam.  21-24,  etc 

\        79-80 

Literature 

80-81 

3. 

Solomon's  Reign,  1  Ki.  2  :  12-11 :  43,  etc. 

81-83 

Literature  having  its  Origin  in  the  Period  of  the 

United  Kingdom 

83-84 

Introduction  to  the  History  and  Literature  op 

THE  Period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom,  1  Ki.  12- 

2  Ki.  25  :  21,  etc 

.       85-132 

1. 

Historical  Writings 

85 

2. 

Prophetical  Writings 

.       85-116 

Introduction  . 

85-88 

A.  Amos 

88-89 

B.  Hosea 

90-92 

C.   Isaiah,  chaps.  1-39 

.       92-100 

T>.  Micah 

.     100-103 

E.  Zephaniah 

.     103-104 

F.   Jeremiah  . 

.     105-111 

G.  Nahum 

112-113 

E.  Habakkuk 

113-114 

/.    Ezekiel      . 

. 

114-116 

3. 

Wisdom  Literature :  Pre- 

■Exilic  Collections  of  Prov- 

erbs 

116-122 

a.  Prov.  10  :  1-22  :  16 

•         •         .         . 

118-120 

6.  Prov.  chaps.  25-29 

120-122 

c.   Prov.  22  :  17-24  :  34 

122 

4. 

Legal  Literature :  the  Deuteronomic  Code 

123-130 

5. 

Poetical  Writings 

130-132 

A.  Pre-Exilic  (Divided  Kingdom)  PsaJms 

130-131 

B.  The  Blessing  of  Mose 

s,  Deut.  33 

131-132 

VII.  B.    The  Chronological  Outline  of  the  Biblical  Ma- 
terial OF  the  Period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom   .     133-169 
I.   Rehoboam-Abijam  of  Judah ;    Jeroboam-Nadab 

of  Israel  —  History  and  Literature  .         .         .     133-135 
II.   Asa  of  Judah ;  Baasha-Omri  of  Israel  —  History 

and  Literature 135-136 

III.  Jehoshaphat-Ahaziah  of  Judah;    Ahab-Jehoram 

of  Israel — History  and  Literature  .         .         .     137-139 

IV.  Athaliah-Amaziah  of    Judah;    Jehu-Jehoash   of 

Israel  —  History  and  Literature       .         .         .     139-141 


XX 


CONTENTS 


V.   tJzziah  of  Judah ;  Jeroboam  II  of  Israel  —  His- 
tory and  Literature  (Deut,  33  ;  Amos  ;  Hosea 

1-3,  etc.) 141-143 

VI.   Jotham  of  Judah  ;  Zechariah-Pekahiah  of  Israel 
—  History  and  Literature  (Isa.  6  ;  2-5  ;  9  :  8- 
10  :  4  ;  17^  1-11 ;  Hos.  4-14)        .         .         .     143-146 
VII.   Ahaz  of  Judali ;  Pekah-Hoshea  of  Israel  —  His- 
tory and  Literature  (Isa.  7:1-9:7;  28  :  1-6  ; 

23;  Micah  1,  etc.) 146-148 

VIII.  Hezekiah's  Reign  —  History    and   Literature 

(Isa.  10-39,  largely ;  Micah  2-5,  etc.)  .     148-154 

IX.   Manasseh's  Reign  —  History  and  Literature 

(Micah  6-7,  etc.) 154-155 

X.  Reigns  of  Amon  and  Josiah  —  History  and  Lit- 
erature (Zephaniah  ;  Jer.  1-6  ;  11 :  1-8.  Xa- 
hum  ;  Deuteronomy,  etc.)  ....  155-159 
XL  Reigns  of  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoiakim  —  History 
and  Literature  (Jer.  7  :  1-22  :  19,  largely ; 
25-26;  35-36;  45-49;  Habakkuk,  etc.)  .  160-164 
XII.  Reigns  of  Jehoiachin  and  Zedekiah  —  His- 
tory and  Literature  (Jer.  13  ;  21 :  1-10 ; 
22:20-30;  23-24;  27-29;  30-34;  37-39, 
largely ;  51 :  59-64,  etc. ;  Ezekiel  1-24 ;  29- 

31,  largely) 164-169 

Other  Literature Cf.  166 


VIII.   A.   Introduction  to   the  History  and    Literature 
OF  THE  Period  of  the  Exile,  2  Ki.  25 :  22-30, 


ETC 

1.  Historical  Writings 

2.  Prophetical  Writings     . 

A.  Jeremiah  43-44,  largely 

B.  Ezekiel  2.5-28  ;  32-48  ;  29  :  17-21 

C.  Deutero-Isaiah  (Isa.  40-55)     . 

D.  Short,  Anonymous  Prophecies 
a.  Isaiah  21 :  1-10  . 
h,   Isaiah  13  :  1-14  :  23 

c.  Jer.  50  :  1-51 :  58 

d.  Jer.  10 :  1-16       . 

3.  Poetical  Writings 

A.  Lamentations 

B.  The  Song  of  Moses,  Deut.  32 :  1-43 

C.  Exihc  Psalms 

4.  Legal  Writings :  The  Law  of  Holiness  (Lev.  17-26) 


170-189 
170-171 
171-181 

171 
171-172 
172-177 
177-181 
177-178 
178-179 
179-180 
180-181 
181-184 
181-183 
183-184 

184 
184-189 


CONTENTS 


XXI 


PAGE 

VIII.   B.    The   Chronological   Outline   of    the   Biblical 

Material  of  the  Period  of  the  Exile  .         .  190-199 

I.  History  and  Literature,  586-570  b.c.  (Jer.  39 : 

10-chap.  44,  largely ;  Ezek.  25-28  ;  29  :  17-21 ; 

32-48,  etc.) 190-192 

IT.   Literature,  570-538  b.c.  {e.g.,  e.  560  ff.  b.c.)   (2 

Ki.   25:27-30;    Lev.   17-26;    Lamentations; 

Jeremiah  Biographj^ ;  Deut.  32  :  1^3  ;  Deut. 

Compilations,  etc.) 193-195 

II  (cont'd).   Literature,   570-538  b.c.    {e.g.,  556-538 

B.C.)    (Isa.   21:1-10;    13:1-14:23;   Jer.  50: 

1-51 :  58 ;  Isa.  40-55 ;  Jer.  10 :  1-16,  etc.          .  195-199 

Other  Literature Cf.  196  f. 

IX.   A.    Introduction  to  the  History  and  Literature  of 

THE  Persian  Period,  Ezra-Nehemiah,  etc.       .  200-251 

1.  Historical  Writings 200-204 

A.  2  Chr.  36  :  22  f 200 

B.  Ezra-Nehemiah 201-204 

2.  Prophetical  Writings 204-224 

A.  Haggai 204-205 

B.  Zechariah  1-8 206 

C.  Malachi 206-208 

D.  Trito-lsaiah  (Isa.  56-66)          ....  208-212 

E.  Obadiah 212-215 

F.  Isaiah  34-35 215-217 

G.  Joel 217-220 

H.  Isaiah  24-27 220-224 

3.  Poetical  Writings 224-241 

A.  The  Psalter     ....                  .         .  224-234 

B.  The  Book  of  Job 235-241 

4.  Legal  writings  :  The  Priestly  Code        .         .         .  241-248 

5.  Didactic  Literature  :   The  Book  of  Ruth        .        .  249-251 

IX.   B.    The    Chronological    Outline   of    the    Biblical 

Material  of  the  Persian  Period     .         .         .  252-274 
I.   History  and  Literature,  538-516  b.c.  (Ezra  1-6, 

largely;  Haggai;  Zech.  1-8,  etc.)           .         .  252-255 

II.  Literature,  516-458  b.c.  (^Malachi,  etc.)    .         .  255-257 
III.   History  and  Literature,  458-445  b.c.  (Ezra  7- 

10;  4:6-23;  Isa.  56-66,  etc.)        .         .         .  257-260 
IV.   History   and   Literature,   445-433  b.c.  (Nehe- 
miah;  Priestly  Code;  Ruth;  Obadiah;  Isa. 

34-35 ;  Pss.  3^1 ;  Canon  of  the  Law,  etc.)    .  260-268 

V.   Lit€rature,  430-350  b.c.  (Joel)  ....  268-269 


XXll 


CONTENTS 


PAOE 

VI.   Literature,  350-332  b.c.  (Isa.  24-27;  Pss.  42-83; 

Job,  etc.) 269-274 

Other  Literature Cf.  270 

X.   A.    Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Grecian 

Period,  Zech.  9-14,  etc 275-299 

1.  Prophetical  Writings 275-281 

A.  Zechariah  9-14 275-279 

B.  The  Book  of  Jonah 279-281 

2.  Poetical  Writings 281-287 

A.  The  Song  of  Solomon 281-283 

B.  Collections  of  Proverbs        .         .         .         .         .  283-287 

a.  Prov.  1-9         . 283-286 

b.  Prov.  30-31 286-287 

c.  The  Combination  of  the  Collections  of  Proverbs  287 

3.  Miscellaneous  Writings 288-299 

A.  Ecclesiastes 288-290 

B.  Esther 291-293 

C.  Daniel 293-299 

X.   B.    The     Chronological     Outline     of     the     Biblical 

Material  of  the  Grecian  Period         .         .         .  300-325 
I.   Literature,  332-250    (200)    b.c.    (Zech.  9-14;  Pss. 
84-89 ;  Song  of  Sol. ;    Jonah ;  Chronicles ;  Ezra- 

Nehemiah,  etc.) 300-306 

I  (cont'd).  Literature,  332-250   (200)    b.c.     (Supple- 
ments to  the  Prophecies ;   the  Prophetic  Canon)  306-310 
I  {cont'd).   Literature,  332-250  (200)  b.c.     (Prov.  1- 
9;    22:17-24:34;   30-31;    Compilation    of    the 
Book  of  Prov. ;    Ecclesiastes)       ....  310-314 
II.   Literature,  c.  250  (200)-165  (140)  b.c.     (The  Books 

of  Esther  and  Daniel) 315-321 

II  (cont'd).    Literature,    c.    250    (200)-165    (140)    b.c. 
(Pss.  90-150  and  the  Compilation  of  the  Psalter ; 

The  Hagiographa,  etc.) 322-325 

Appendix  A.     The  Chronological  Order  op  the  Biblical 
Material  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  on  the  Theory 
OF  the  Priority  of  Nehemiah's  Mission         .  327-329 
Appendix  B.     The  Analysis  of  the  Song  op  Solomon,  ac- 
cording to  the  Shepherd  Hypothesis    .         .  330-332 
Appendix  C.     A  Survey  of  Old  Testament  Chronology  .  333-352 
Index  A.     Chronological  Setting  of  the  O.  T.  Writings  353-358 
Index  B.     Books,  Passages  and  Verses  Discussed      .         .  359-369 

Index  C.     Names  and  Subjects 370-380 

Index  D.     Citations  from  Authors 381-383 


LIST   OF  REFERENCE  LITERATURE 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  authorities  con- 
sulted in  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  and  to  which 
references  are  made  throughout  it,  with  the  abbreviations 
used  in  their  citation.  The  various  articles  in  the  Bible 
Dictionaries  are  not  indicated  in  this  list,  but  are  found  in 
connection  with  the  reference  literature  given  with  the 
different  Old  Testament  books,  etc.,  in  the  introductory 
sections  of  each  period. 

Adeney,  Ezra,  etc.  =  The    books    of    Ezra,    Nehemiah     and     Esther 

(Expos.  B.).     1893. 
Adeney,   Song   of  Sol.,   etc.  =  The  books  of  Song  of  Solomon  and 

Lamentations  (Expos.  B.)-     1895. 
AiTKEN,  Job  =  The  book  of  Job,  in  Bible  Handbooks  series. 
Bacon,  Ex.  =  The  Triple  Tradition  of  the  Exodus.     1894. 
Bacon,  Gen.,  etc.  =  The  Genesis  of  Genesis.     1892. 
Ball,  Jer.  =  The   Prophecies   of   Jeremiah,   chaps.  1-20    (Expos.   B.). 

1902. 
Ball,  Light  from  the  Ancient  East.     1899. 
Barnes,  Chr.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Chronicles  (Camb.  B.).     1899. 
Barnes,  Ki.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Kings  in  R.  V.  (Camb.  B.).     1908. 
Barton,  Eccles.  =  Comm.  on  Ecclesiastes  (Int.  Crit.).     1908. 
Batten,  Ezra,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Ezra-Nehemiah  (Int.  Crit.).     1913. 
Beecher  (W.  J.),  Dated  Events  of  the  Old  Testament.     1907. 
Bennett,  Chr.  =  The  Books  of  Chronicles  (Expos.  B.).     1894. 
Bennett,  Ex.  =  Comm.  on  Exodus  (Cen.  B.).     1908. 
Bennett,  Gen.  =  Comm.  on  Genesis  (Cen.  B.).     1904. 
Bennett,  Introd.  =  A  Biblical  Introduction   (+  N.  Test.   Introd.  by 

Adeney).     1899. 
Bennett,  Jer.  =  The  Prophecies  of  Jeremiah,    chaps.    21-52    (Expos. 

B.).     1895. 
Bennett,  Josh.  =  The  book  of  Joshua  (SBOT).     1899. 
Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  =  The  Post-Exilic  Prophets.     1907. 
Bennett,  Primer,  etc.  =  A  Primer  of  the  Bible.     1898. 
Bevan,  Dan.  =  Comm.  on  Daniel.     1892. 


xxiv  LIST   OF  REFERENCE  LITERATURE 

Bewer,  Joel  =  Comm.  on  Joel,  in  vol.  2  of  Minor  Prophs.  (Int.  Crit.). 

1912. 
Bewer,  Jonah  =  Comm.  on  Jonah,  in  vol.   3  of  Minor  Prophs.  (Int. 

Crit.).     1912. 
Bewer,  Obad.  =  Comm.  on  Obadiah,  in  vol.  2  of  Minor  Prophs.  (Int. 

Crit.).     1912. 
Bible  Handbooks,  e.g.  Comms.  on  Job,  Haggai,  etc. 
Book  By  Book,   by  various  contributors,  e.g.  Proverbs  by  Davidson. 

1901. 
Breasted,  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt,  vol.  1.     1906. 
Breasted,    Hist.  Egypt  =  A   History  of   the  Ancient    Egyptians    (in 

the  Historical  series  for  Bible  Students).     1908. 
Briggs,  Holy  Scripts.  =  The  Study  of  Holy  Scriptures.     1900. 
Briggs,  Psal.  =  Comms.  on  the  Psalms,  2  vols.  (Int.  Crit.).     1906-7. 
Bruce,  Apologetics.     1892. 

BuDDE,  Relig.  Isr.  =  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Exile.     1899. 
Buhl,  Canon,  etc.  =  The  Canon  and  Text  of  the  Old  Testament.     1892. 
Camb.  B.  =  Comms.  in  the  "Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and  Colleges" 

series. 
Camb.  Theo.  Essays  =  Cambridge  Theological  Essays.     1905. 
Cen.  B.  =  Comms.  in  the  "New  Century  Bible"  series. 
Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  =  An  Introduction  to  the  Pentateuch.     1911. 
Chapman  and  Streane,  Lev.  =  Comm.  on  Leviticus   (Camb.  B.).     1914. 
Charles,  Dan.  =  Comm.  on  Daniel  (Cen.  B.).     1913. 
CHB,   Hex.  =  The   Hexateuch,   2   vols.,    by   Carpenter   and   Harford- 

Battersby.     1900. 
Cheyne,  Aids,  etc.  =  Aids  to  the  Devout  Study  of  Criticism.     1892. 
Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.  =  Founders  of  Old  Testament  Criticism.     1893. 
Cheyne,  Hos.  =  Comm.  on  Hosea  (Camb.  B.).     1884. 
Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  =  Introduction  to  the  book  of  Isaiah.     1895. 
Cheyne,  Isa.  (SBOT)  =  The  book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah  (SBOT).     1898. 
Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times   =  Jeremiah,  his  Life  and  Times  (in  the 

Men  of  the  Bible  series).     1888. 
Cheyne,  Jew.   Relig.   Life  =  Jemsh  Religious    Life  after  the   Exile. 

1898. 
Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol.  =  Job  and  Solomon.     1887. 
Cheyne,  Mic.  =  Comm.  on  Micah  (Camb.  B.).     1895. 
Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.  =  Origin  and  Religious    Contents  of  the  Psalter 

(Bampton  lectures  of  1889).     1891. 
Cornill,  Hist.  Isr.  =  A  History  of  the  People  of  Israel.     1899. 
CoRNiLL,  Introd.  =  An  Introduction  to  the  Canonical  Books  of  the 

Old  Testament.     1907. 
Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  =  The  Prophets  of  Israel.     1895. 
Curtis,  Chr.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Chronicles  (Int.  Crit.).     1910. 
Davidson,  Ezek.  =  Comm.  on  Ezekiel  (Camb.  B.).     1893. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCE  LITERATURE  XXV 

Davidson,  Isa.  =  Comm.  on  Isaiah  (TB).     1902. 

Davidson,  Job  =  Comm.  on  Job  (Camb.  B.).     1886. 

Davidson,  Nah.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Nahum,  Habakkuk  and  Zephaniah 

(Camb.  B.).     1896. 
Davidson,  O.  T.  Prophc.  =  Old  Testament  Prophecy.     1904. 
Davies,  Ezra,  etc.  =  Comms.  on   Ezra,  Nehemiah   and   Esther    (Cen. 

B.).     1909. 
Davies,  Psal.  =  Comm.  on  Psalms  73-150,  vol.  2  (Cen.  B.).     1906. 
Davison,  Psal.  =  Comm.  on  Psalms  1-72,  vol.  1  (Cen.  B.).     1906. 
Delitzsch,  Psal.  =  Comms.  on  the  Psalms,  3  vols.     1887-89. 
DoDs,  Hag.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Haggai,  Zeehariah  and  Malachi  (Bible 

Handbooks).     1881. 
Driver,  Dan.  =  Comm.  on  Daniel  (Camb.  B.).     1901.^ 
Driver,  Deut.  =  Comm.  on  Deuteronomy  (Int.  Crit.).     1902. 
Driver,  Ex.  =  Comm.  on  Exodus  (Camb.  B.).     1911. 
Driver,  Gen.  =  Comm.  on  Genesis  (West.  C).     1911. 
Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times  =  Isaiah,  his    Life  and    Times   (in    the 

Men  of  the  Bible  series).     1893. 
Driver,  Jer.  =  The  book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah.     1906. 
Driver,  Joel,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Joel  and  Amos  (Camb.  B.).     1901. 
Driver,  Minor  Prophs.  =  Comms.  on  the  2nd  six  Minor  Prophs.,  vol. 

2  (Cen.  B.).     1906. 
Driver  and  White,  Lev.   (SBOT)  =  Leviticus  (SBOT).     1898. 
EBi.  =  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  4  vols.     1899-1903. 
Ency.  Brit.  =  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (11th  ed.).     1910-11. 
EwALD,  Psal.  =  Comms.  on  the  Psalms,  2  vols.     1880-81. 
Expos.  B.  =  The  "Expositor's  Bible"  series. 
Farrar,  Dan.  =  The  book  of  Daniel  (Expos.  B.).     1895. 
Farrar,  Ki.  =  The  First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings,  2  vols.  (Expos.  B.). 

1893-94. 
Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  =  The   Minor   Prophets   (in  the  Men  of  the 

Bible  series).     1890. 
Fisher  (G.  P.),  Nature   and  Method   of  Revel.  =  The  Nature  and 

Method  of  Revelation.     1890. 
Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.  =  A   History   of   the    Literature   of   Ancient 

Israel.     1912. 
Genung,  Epic  of  Inner  Life.     1893. 
Genung,  Koheleth  =  The  Words  of  Koheleth.     1904. 
Gibson,  Job  =  Comm.  on  Job  (West.  C).     1899. 
Gillies,  Jer.  =  Jeremiah  ;    the  Man  and  his  Message.     1907. 
Gordon  (A.  R.),  Early  Trad.  Gen.  =  The  Early  Traditions  of  Gene- 
sis.    1907. 

1  Note  also  LOT  as  one  of  Driver's  works  to  which  constant  reference  is 
made  in  this  volume. 


xxvi  LIST   OF   REFERENCE   LITERATURE 

Gordon  (A.  R.),  Poets,  etc.  =  The    Poets     of    the     Old     Testament. 
1913. 

Gray,  Introd.  =  A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.      1913. 

Gray,  Isa.  1-27    =  Comm.  on  Isaiah,  chaps.  1-27,  vol.  1    (Int.    Crit.). 
1912. 

Gray,  Num.  =  Comm.  on  Numbers  (Int.  Crit.).     1906. 

Griffis,  Lily  among  Thorns.     1895. 

GuNKEL,  Legends  of  Gen.  =  The  Legends  of  Genesis.      1907. 

Harper  (A),  Deut.  =  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  (Expos.  B.).     1901. 

Harper  (A),  Song  of  Sol.  =  Comm.  on  the  Song  of  Solomon  (Camb. 
B.).     1902. 

Harper  (W.  R.),  Amos,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Amos  and    Hosea,    vol.  1 
of  Minor  Prophs.  (Int.  Crit.).     1905. 

Harvey-Jellie,  Chr.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Chronicles  (Cen.  B.).     1906. 

HDB  =  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  4  vols.  +  extra  vol.     1901-04. 

Herod.  =  Herodotus. 

Hommel,  Hebr.  Trad.  =  The  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition.     1897. 

Horton,  Minor  Prophs.  =  Comms.  on  the  1st  six  Minor  Prophs.,  vol. 
1  (Cen.  B.).     1906. 

Horton,  Pro  v.  =  The  book  of  Proverbs  (Expos.  B.).     1891. 

Hunter,  After  Exile.    2  vols.     1890. 

Int.  Crit.  =  The  "International  Critical"  series  of  commentaries. 

Jew.  Ency.  =  The  Jewish  Encyclopaedia,  12  vols.     1901-06. 

Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  =  The  Jewish  Quarterly  Review. 

Jos.  Ant.  =  Josephus,  Antiquities  of  the  Jews. 

Jos.  c.  Ap.  =  Josephus,  Against  Apion. 

Journal  Bib.  Lit.  =  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature. 

Kautzsch,  lot  =  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.     1899. 

Kennedy,  Lev.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Leviticus  and  Numbers  (Cen.  B.). 
1911. 

Kennedy,  Sam.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Samuel  (Cen.  B.).     1905. 

Kennett,   Compos.    Isa.  =  The    Composition   of    the   Book  of   Isaiah. 
1910. 

Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.  =  The  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History    (Stu- 
dent's Old  Testament  series).     1904. 

Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  =  The  Divided  Kingdom,  vol.  2  of  the  History 
of  the  Hebrew  People.     1897. 

Kent,  Heroes,  etc.  =  Heroes  and   Crises  of   Early    Hebrew    History 

(Historical  Bible  series).     1909. 
Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.  =  Israel's  Historical  and  Biographical  Narra- 
tives (Student's  Old  Testament  series).     1905. 
Kent,  Isr.  Laws  and  Precedents  =  Israel's  Laws  and   Legal   Prece- 
dents (Student's  Old  Testament  series).     1907. 
Kent,  Jew.  People  =  A  History  of  the   Jewish    People   (Babylonian, 
Persian  and  Greek  periods).     1899. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCE   LITERATURE  xxvil 

Kent,  Lawgivers  =  The  Messages  of  Israel's  Lawgivers.     1902. 
Kent,  Sermons,  etc.  =  The    Sermons,    Epistles    and    Apocalypses   of 

Israel's  Prophets  (Student's  Old  Testament).     1910. 
Kent,  Songs,  etc.  =  The  Songs,  Hymns  and  Prayers  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Student's  Old  Testament).     1914. 
Kent,  United  Kingd.  =  The  United  Kingdom,  vol.  1  of  the  History  of 

the  Hebrew  People.     1899. 
Kent,  Wise  Men,  etc.  =  The  Wise  Men  of  Ancient  Israel  and  their 

Proverbs.     1895. 
King,     Chrons.     Early     Bab.     Kings  =  Chronicles   concerning  early 

Babylonian  Eangs.     1907. 
KiRKPATRicK,  Div.  LiBRARY,  ETC.  =  The   Diviuc   Library   of   the   Old 

Testament.     1896. 
KiRKPATRicK,  DocT.  Prophs.  =  The  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets.     1897. 
KiRKPATRiCK,  PsAL.  =  Comms.  on  the    Psalms,    3    vols.    (Camb.    B.). 

1897-1901 ;   also  in  one-vol.  ed. 
KiTTEL,  Hist.  Hebrs.  =  A  History  of  the  Hebrews,  2  vols.     1895. 
KiTTEL,  SciENT.  Study  0.  T.  =  The     Scientific     Study    of    the     Old 

Testament.     1910. 
LoFTHOUSE,  EzEK.  =  Comm.  on  Ezekiel  (Cen.  B.). 
LOT  =  Driver's  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament, 

new  ed.  revised.     1913.^ 
McCuRDY,  HPM  =  History,    Prophecy   and    the   Monuments,    3   vols. 

1894-1901 ;    also  in  one-vol.  ed. 
McFadyen,  Hists.  =  The  Messages  of  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly  His- 
torians.    1901. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  =  An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.     1905. 
McFadyen,  Psal.  =  The  Messages  of  the  Psalmists.     1904. 
McNeile,  Deut.  =  Deuteronomy,  its  Place  in  Revelation.     1912. 
McNeile,  Ex.  =  Comm.  on  Exodus  (West.  C).     1908. 
McNeile,  Num.  =  Comm.  on  Numbers  (Camb.  B.).     1911. 
Martin,  Prov.,  etc.  =  Comms.    on   Proverbs,    Ecclesiastes   and    Song 

of  Songs  (Cen.  B.).     1908. 
Mitchell,  Hag.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Haggai   and   Zechariah,  in  vol.  3 

of  Minor  Prophs.  (Int.  Crit.).     1912. 
Mitchell,  World  before  Abr.  =  The  World  before  Abraham.     1901. 
MooRE  (G.  F.),  Judg.  =  Comm.  on  Judges  (Int.  Crit.).     1898. 
Moore   (G.  F.),  Judg.   (SBOT)  =  The  book  of  Judges  (SBOT).     1898. 
Moore  (G.  F.),  LOT  =  The  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.     1913. 
O.  and  N.  Test.  Student  =  Old  and  New  Testament  Student. 

1  It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  page  numbering  of  this  (the  last) 
ed.  of  LOT  corresponds  with  the  earlier  eds.,  and  hence  the  references  to 
LOT  in  this  vol.  can  be  used  for  any  ed.  While  the  last  issue  incorporates 
new  material  and  changes,  the  body  of  subject-matter  is  practically  iden- 
tical with  previous  editions. 


xxvili  LIST   OF  REFERENCE   LITERATURE 

Paton,  Early  Hist.  Syria,  etc.  =  The   Early  History   of    Syria  and 

Palestine.     1901. 
Paton,  Esth.  =  Comm.  on  Esther  (Int.  Crit.).     1908. 
Peake,  Jer.  =  Comms.  on  Jeremiah,  2  vols.  (Cen.  B.).     1910,  1912. 
Peake,  Job  =  Comm.  on  Job  (Cen.  B.).     1905. 
Peritz,  O.  T.  Hist.  =  Old  Testament  History.     1915. 
Perowne,  Hag.,  etc.  =  Comms.   on  Haggai,  Zechariah   and    Malachi 

(Camb.  B.).     1897. 
Perowne,  Prov.  =  Comm.  on  Proverbs  (Camb.  B.).     1899. 
Peters,  Relig.  Hebrs.  =  The  ReUgion  of  the  Hebrews.     1914. 
Petrie,  Hist.  Egypt  =  A  History  of  Egypt,  2  vols.     1897. 
Plumptre,  Eccles.  =  Comm.  on  Ecclesiastes  (Camb.  B.).     1881. 
Porter  (F.),  Apoc.  Writers  =  The    Messages     of     the     Apocalyptic 

Writers.     1905. 
Redpath,  Ezek.  =  Comm.  on  Ezekiel  (West.  C). 
RiGGS  (J.  S.),  Jew.  People  =  A  History  of  the  Jewish  People  (Maeea- 

bean  and  Roman  periods).     1900. 
Robertson,  Early  Relig.  Isr.  =  The  Early  Religion  of  Israel.     1892. 
Robertson,  Poet,  and  Relig.,  etc.  =  The  Poetry  and  ReUgion  of  the 

Psalms.     1898. 
Robinson,   Deut.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Deuteronomy  and  Joshua  (Cen. 

B.). 
Rogers,    Cuneiform   Parallels  =  Cuneiform    Parallels    to    the    Old 

Testament.     1912. 
Ryle,  Canon,  etc.  =  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament.     1895. 
Ryle,  Early  Narrs.  Gen.  =  The  Early  Narratives  of  Genesis.     1892. 
Ryle,  Ezra,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Ezra-Nehemiah  (Camb.  B.).     1893. 
Ryle,  Gen.  =  Comm.  on  Genesis  (Camb.  B.).     1914. 
Sanday,  Inspir.  =  Inspiration  (Bampton  Lectures,  1893). 
Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  =  History  of  the  Hebrews.     1914. 
Sanders,    etc.,   Prophs.  =  Sanders   and   Kent,    The  Messages   of   the 

EarKer  and  Later  Prophets,  2  vols.     1898,  1901. 
Sayce,  Early  Hist.  Hebrs.  =  The    Early    History    of    the    Hebrews. 

1899. 
Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc.  =  The   Higher   Criticism   and    the   Monu- 
ments.    1894. 
SBOT  =  "The  Sacred  Books  of  the  O.  and  N.  Testaments"  translation. 
Schaff-Herzog,  Ency.  =  Encyclopedia,  new  ed.     12  vols.     1908-12. 
Schmidt,  Poets  =  The  Messages  of  the  Poets.     1911. 
ScHULTz,  0.  T.  Theol.  =  Old  Testament  Theology,  2  vols.     1892. 
Skinner,  Divine  Names,  etc.  =  The  Divine  Names  in  Genesis.     1914. 
Skinner,  Ezek.  =  The  book  of  Ezekiel  (Expos.  B.).     1893. 
Skinner,  Gen.  =  Comm.  on  Genesis  (Int.  Crit.).     1910. 
Skinner,  Is  a.  =  Comms.  on  Isaiah,  2  vols.  (Camb.  B.).     1896,  1898. 
Skinner,  Ki.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Kings  (Cen.  B.). 


LIST   OF  REFERENCE   LITERATURE  xxix 

Smith   (G.  A.),  Bk.  of  XII.  =  The   Book  of   the  Twelve  Prophets,  2 

vols.  (Expos.  B.).     1896,  1898. 
Smith  (G.  A.),  Early  Poet.  Isr.=  The  Early  Poetry  of  Israel  (Schweich 

Lectures,  1910).     1912. 
Smith  (G.  A.),  Isa.  =  The  Book  of  Isaiah,  2  vols.  (Expos.  B.).     1889-90. 
Smith   (G.  A.),  Jerusalem  =  Jerusalem  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  a.d. 

70.     2  vols.     1908. 
Smith  (G.  A.),    Modern    Crit.,    etc.  =  Modern     Criticism     and    the 

Preaching  of  the  Old  Testament.     1901. 
Smith   (H.  P.),  O.  T.  Hist.  =  Old  Testament  History.     1903. 
Smith  (H.  P.),  Sam.  =  Comms.  on  1-2  Samuel  (Int.  Crit.).     1899. 
Smith  (J.  M.  P.),  Mal.  =  Comm.  on  Malachi,  in  vol.  3  of  the  Minor 

Prophs.  (Int.  Crit.)     1912. 
Smith  (J.   M.   P.),   Mic,  etc.  =  Comms.   on    Micah,   Zephaniah    and 

Nahum,  in  vol.  2  of  Minor  Prophs.  (Int.  Crit.).     1912. 
Smith  (W.  R.),  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  2  =  The  Old  Testament  and    the 

Jewish  Church,  2nd  ed.     1902. 
Smith  (W.  R.),  Prophs.  Isr.2  =  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  2nd  ed.     1907. 
Sprott,  Inspir.  and  the  O.  T.  =  Inspiration  and  the  Old  Testament. 
Strahan,  Job  =  The  Book  of  Job  Interpreted.     1913. 
Streane,  Esth.  =  Comm.  on  Esther  (Camb.  B.).     1907. 
Streane,  Jer.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  (Camb. 

B.).     1913. 
Thatcher,  Judg.,  etc.  =  Comms.  on  Judges  and  Ruth  (Cen.  B.). 
TB  =  Temple  Bible  series  of  commentaries. 
Toffteen,  Ancient  Chronology.     1907. 
ToFFTEEN,  Historic  Exodus.     1909. 
Torrey,  Compos.,  etc.,  Ezra-Neh.  =  Composition  and  Historical  Value 

of  Ezra-Nehemiah.     1896. 
Toy,  Ezek.  =  The  book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  (SBOT).     1899. 
Toy,  Prov.  =  Comm.  on  Proverbs  (Int.  Crit.).     1899. 
Wade,  Isa.  =  Comm.  on  Isaiah  (West.  C).     1911. 
Wade,  0.  T.  Hist.  =  Old  Testament  History.     1908. 
Ward,  Habak.  =  Comm.   on  Habakkuk,   in  vol.   2  of  Minor  Prophs. 

(Int.  Crit.).     1912. 
West.  C.  =  Westminster  series  of  commentaries. 
Wellhausen,  Psal.   (SBOT)  =  The  book  of  Psalms  (SBOT).     1896. 
Whitehouse,  Isa.  =  Comms.  on  Isaiah,  2  vols.  (Cen.  B.).     1905,  1908. 
Wiener,  Essays  in  Pent.  Crit.  =  Essays   in   Pentateuchal  Criticism. 

1909. 
Wildeboer,  Canon,  etc.  =  The  Origin  of  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.    1895. 
Workman,  Servt.  of  Jeh.  =  The  Servant  of  Jehovah.     1907. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


1.   Biblical  and   Apocryphal  Books  or  Sections 


Am.  =  Amos. 

Cant.  =  Canticles  =  the    Song    of 

Solomon. 
C.  =  Chronicles     (used     especially 

when  the  name  in  full,  or  the 

abbreviation,  Chr.,  appears  in 

the  context). 
Chr.  =  Chronicles. 
Dan.  =  Daniel. 
Deut.  =  Deuteronomy. 
Deut.-Isa.  =  Deutero-Isaiah,       i.e. 

Isaiah,  chaps.  40-55. 
Eccles.  =  Ecclesiastes. 
Ecclus.  =  Ecclesiasticus. 
Esth.  =  Esther. 
Ex.  =  Exodus. 
Ezek.  =  Ezeldel. 
Ezra. 

Gen.  =  Genesis. 
Habak.  =  Habakkuk. 
Hag.  =  Haggai. 
Hex.  =  Hexateuch,  i.e.  Genesis  to 

Joshua  inclusive. 
Hos.  =  Hosea. 
Isa.  =  Isaiah. 
Jer.  =  Jeremiah. 
Job. 
Joel. 

Jon.  =  Jonah. 
Josh.  =  Joshua. 
Judg.  =  Judges. 
Ki.  =  Kings. 


Lam.  =  Lamentations. 

Lev.  =  Leviticus. 

Lk.  =  Luke. 

Mace.  =  Maccabees,  books  of. 

Mai.  =  Malachi. 

Matt.  =  Matthew. 

Mic.  =  Micah. 

Minor  Prophs.  =  Minor  Prophets. 

Mk.  =  Mark. 

Nah.  =  Nahum. 

Neh.  =  Nehemiah. 

Num.  =  Numbers. 

Obad.  =  Obadiah. 

Pent.  =  Pentateuch,  i.e.  Genesis 
to  Deuteronomy  inclusive. 

Prophs.  =  Prophets. 

Prov.  =  Proverbs. 

Ps.  =  Psalm. 

Pss.  =  Psalms. 

Psal.  =  Psalter  =  book  of  Psalms. 

Rom.  =  Romans. 

Ruth. 

S  =  Samuel  (used  especially  when 
the  name  in  full,  or  the  abbre- 
viation, Sam.,  appears  in  the 
context). 

Sam.  =  Samuel. 

Song  of  Sol.  =  Song  of  Solomon. 

Trito.-Isa.  =  Trito-Isaiah,  i.e.  Isaiah, 
chaps.  56-66. 

Zech.  =  Zechariah. 

Zeph.  =  Zephaniah. 


2.   Sources,  Texts,  Versions,  etc. 


A.  V.  =  Authorized  Version  (1611). 

Am.  R.  V.  =  American  ("Standard")  Revised  Version  (1901). 

xxxi 


XXxii  ABBREVIATIONS 

Ch.  =  the  Chronicler,  i.e.  the  compiler  of  Chronicles,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah ; 
also  used  to  designate  all  the  material  peculiar  to  the  books  of  Chron- 
icles and  the  compiler's  contribution  in  Ezra^-Neh.  (Cf .  pp.  64,  n.  2 ; 
201.) 

D  =  the  Deuteronomic  Code  or  source,  strictly  =  Deut.  (5-11),  12-26 
+  28. 

D2  =  supplementary  sections  to  the  original  book  of  Deut.  and  in  the 
narrative  part  of  the  Hex.,  espec.  in  Josh.,  in  the  phraseology  and 
spirit  of  D ;  also  Deut.  editorial  additions  in  Judg.,  Sam.  and  Ki. 

E  (in  the  Hexateuch)  =  the  Elohist  or  Elohistic  narrative. ^ 

E2  (in  the  Hexateuch)  \   _  secondary  or    supplemental  additions  to  the 

E^  (in  the  Hexateuch)  /  original  E,  from  the  same  school. 

E  (in  Kings)  =  sometimes  used  to  designate  the  Prophetic  historical 
group  of  narratives,  e.g.  1  Ki.  20;   22 :  1-38,  etc.     See  pp.  57  f.  (e). 

E  (in  Ezra-Neh.)  =  the  Memoirs  of  Ezra. 

El.  =  the  Elijah-Elisha  narratives  in  Kings  {e.g.  1  Ki.  17,  etc.). 

E.V.  =  English  versions. 

H  =  the  HoUness  Code,  i.e.  Lev.  17-26. 

J  =  the  Jehovist  (or  Yahwist)  or  Jehovistic  (Yahwistic)  narrative  of  the 
Hexateuch.2 

J''\  _  secondary  or  supplemental  additions  to  the 

J^  j   ~     original  J,  from  the  same  school. 

JE  =  the  combined  sources  J  and  E. 

JED  =  the  combined  sources  J,  E  and  D.  ^ 

JEDP  =  the  combined  sources  J,  E,  D  and  P. 

LXX  =  The  Septuagint  version. 

LXX  (L)       \  _  the  Septuagint,  giving  the  recension  of 

LXX  (Luc.)  J    ~      Lucian  (Lagarde's  ed.     1883). 

MT  =  Massoretic  text. 

N  =  the  Memoirs  of  Nehemiah. 


^-  t[*      I  =  the  New  Testament. 

"■}  = 


^'  ^'         ^  =  the  Old  Testament. 
O.  Test. 

P  =  the  Priestly  source  or  Code  of  the  Hex. 

pi  =  used  by  some  scholars  for  H  (Lev.  17-26). 

P2  =  used  by  some  scholars  for  P  (less  Lev.  17-26). 

Po  =  used  by  some  scholars  to  designate  the  main  body  of  the  Priestly 

Code,  less  P^,  pt  and  P^. 

P*  =  used  by  some  scholars  for  H. 

P*  =  supplementary  additions  to  P,  from  the  same  school. 

1  In  addition  some  scholars  apply  this  sign  E  to  indicate  certain  nar- 
rative sections  in  Judges  and  Samuel;  cf.  pp.  46  f.,  48. 

2  In  addition  some  scholars  apply  the  symbol  J  to  denote  certain  nar- 
rative sections  in  Judges  and  Samuel.    See  refs.  n.  1. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


XXXlll 


P*  =  used  by  some  scholars  to  designate  a  division  of  P,  i.e.  the  "Priestly 
Teaching,"  e.g.  Lev.  1-3,  etc.     See  p.  266,  v.  a.  (b). 

Pr.  =  used  by  some  scholars  to  indicate  the  EUjah-Elisha  stories  in  Kings. 
Cf.  El. 

Pr^.  =  used  by  some  scholars  to  designate  the  Elisha  stories  in  Kings. 

Pesh.  =  the  Peshitto  ( =  Syriac)  version. 

pre-Deut.  =  pre-Deuteronomic,  applied  espec.  to  narrative  material  com- 
posed before  the  Deut.  Code. 

R  =  redactor. 

RP  =  used  interchangeably  with  D^. 

Ri>2  =  exiUc  Deut.  additions  to  the  R^  edition  of  Kings.     (See  pp.  60  ff.) 

R^] 

RJ  \  =  redactors  within  the  schools  of  E,  J  and  P  respectively. 

RJE  =  tJie  compiler  who  combined  J  and  E  into  JE. 

R.  V.  =  the  Revised  Version  (1885). 

R.  y.  marg.  =  the  Revised  Version,  marginal  reading. 

SS  =  used  by  some  scholars  to  denote  the  later  Samuel  and  Saul  stories. 

Syriac  =  the  Syriac  Version. 


3.  Miscellaneous 


Ap.  =  Appendix. 

art.  =  article. 

arts.  =  articles. 

Bihle  Diets.  =  Dictionaries  of  the 

Bible. 
hk.  =  book. 
bks.  =  books. 

c.  =  about,  used  with  numbers. 
cen.  =  century. 
cf.  =  compare. 
chap.  =  chapter. 
chaps.  =  chapters. 
chron.  =  chronological. 
cont'd  =  continued. 
contra  =  opposite  opinion. 
Comm.  =  commentary. 
Comms.  =  commentaries. 
Deut.  =  Deuteronomic.       See  also 

Deut.  under  1,  p.  xxxi. 
ed.  =  edition. 
e.g.  =  for  example. 
espec.  =  especially. 
/.  =  after  a  number  indicating  one 


to  be  added;  e.g.  vss.  6  f.  = 
vss.  6  and  7. 

ff.  =  after  a  number  indicating 
more  than  one  to  be  added 

Hebr.  =  Hebrew. 

Ibid.  =  the  same  authority  as  pre- 
viously cited. 

i.e.  =  that  is. 

in  loc.  =  see  authority  cited,  under 
the  chap,  section  or  topic  which 
relates  to  the  subject ;  e.g. 
"Judg.  1,  see  LOT  in  loc."  = 
see  lot's  discussion  of  Judg. 
1. 

Introd.  =  Introduction,  espec.  In- 
troduction to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

Introds.  =  Introductions. 

Isr.  =  Israel. 

I.  =  line. 

lit.  =  literally. 

marg.  =  marginal  reading  in  the 
Bible. 


XXXIV 


ABBREVIATIONS 


mo.  =  month. 

mos.  =  months. 

MS.  =  manuscript. 

MSS.  =  manuscripts. 

n.  =  note ;  e.g.  n.  1  =  note  1. 

^'  ^-      1   =  New  Testament. 
N.  Test.  / 

^-  ^-       I  =  Old  Testament. 
O.   Test.  / 

/).  =  page. 

pp.  =  pages. 


Prophs.  =  Prophets. 
Prophc.  =  Prophecy. 
Ps.  =  psahn. 
Pss.  =  psalms. 
ref.  =  reference. 
vers.  =  version. 
vol.  =  volume. 
vs.  =  verse. 
vss.  =  verses. 
yrs.  =  years. 


4.    Signs,  etc. 

=  used  in  the  sense  of  equals,  contains,  belongs  to,  comprises,  indicates, 

etc. 
—  used  to  denote  inclusion,  e.g.  2  Ki.  1-12  =  the  1st  12  chaps,  of  2  Ki.    In 

a  few  instances  it  is  used  as  a  sign  of  subtraction  ;  e.g.  on  p.  351,  line 

21. 
+  used  to  indicate  that  what  follows  this  sign  is  to  be  included  with  what 

precedes. 
//  used  to  denote  sections  or  vss.  of  the  O.  Test,  which  are  practically 

the  same.     It  is  also  used  to  indicate  synchronous  events,  or  literary 

productions. 
§     followed  by  a  number  indicates  the  paragraph  cited ;   e.g.  §  6  =  para- 
graph 6. 
*     used  after  a  vs.  or  vss.  to  indicate  composite  origin;    e.g.  vss.  6-10* 

=  P  means  that  vss.  6-10  are  P  in  the  main  +  admixture  of  other 

material. 
?    after  numbers  or  specified  sections  indicates  uncertainty,  or  difference 

of  opinion,  as  to  classification  or  chronological  place  given  them. 
(  )  enclosing  a  vs.  or  section,  occasionally  used  in  this  vol.  with  practically 

the  same  meaning  as  the  preceding  sign.     Usually  it  is  employed  in 

the  common  signification  of  inclusion. 


AN    INTRODUCTION    TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 
CHRONOLOGICALLY   ARRANGED 


AN  INTEODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
CHRONOLOGICALLY  AREANGED 

THE  HISTORICAL  WRITINGS 

The  following  facts  relating  to  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  need  to  be  considered  as  preliminary 
to  the  study  of  the  historical  material  belonging  to  each 
period. 

1.   The  Two-fold  Historical  Series 

The  historical  books  naturally  fall  into  a  two-fold  divi- 
sion :  the  first  including  Genesis  to  Second  Kings  (exclud- 
ing Ruth  1) ;  the  second,  First  and  Second  Chronicles,  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah.  The  first  covers  the  time  from  the  Creation 
to  the  year  562  or  561  B.C.,  i.e.  the  year  of  the  release  of 
King  Jehoiachin  from  captivity  (cf .  Gen.  1 :  1  with  2  Ki. 
25:27).  The  second  extends  from  Adam  (=  the  Crea- 
tion) to  Nehemiah 's  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  in  432  B.C. 
(cf.  1  Chr.  1:1  with  Neh.  13:6).2 

Up  to  the  time  of  David  we  have  to  depend  ahnost  en- 
tirely upon  the  first  series  for  our  history.  From  David 
to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.c.  the  two  series 
are  parallel,  though  the  second  practically  disregards  the 
Northern  Kingdom.     The  history  from  that  date  forward, 

1  The  Jewish  order  and  classification  of  the  Old  Testament  books  differ 
from  those  found  in  the  English  Bible.  They  were  grouped  in  three 
divisions,  viz.  the  Law,  i.e.  the  Pentateuch;  the  Prophets  (=  Joshua, 
Judges,  1  and  2  Samuel,  1  and  2  Kings,  and  the  Major  and  Minor 
Prophets) ;  and  the  Hagiographa  or  WritingSy  which  included  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Old  Testament  books.  The  book  of  Ruth  is  found 
in  the  third  division  of  the  Hebrew  Canon.    Cf.  also  p.  249,  n.  ^ 

2 The  genealogies  in  Chronicles  bring  the  date  down  still  later;  cf. 
pp.  66  f. 

B  1 


2    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

SO  far  as  it  is  recorded,  is  found  only  in  the  second  series, 
viz.  in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 

2.  The  Composition  of  Historical  Literature 

The  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  their  present 
form  show  clearly  that  they  have  been  derived  from  previous 
sources.  Thus  in  2  Samuel  1 :  19-26  David's  lament  for 
Saul  and  Jonathan  is  introduced  with  the  words  (vs.  186), 
^'behold  it  is  written  in  the  book  of  Jashar,'^  that  is,  this 
elegy  of  David  was  derived  by  the  writer  or  editor  of  Samuel 
from  an  anthology  of  poetry  called  the  ''Book  of  Jashar'^ 
(cf.  Josh.  10:12f.). 

The  same  fact  is  much  more  apparent  in  such  books  as 
Kings  and  Chronicles,  where  reference  is  frequently  made  to 
other  works,  which  have  been  drawn  upon  for  material  in 
the  composition  of  the  present  books.  Thus  in  Kings  such 
sources  are  mentioned  as  ''the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of 
the  Kings  of  Israel"  (17  times),  and  "the  Book  of  the 
Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah"  (15  times);  cf.  1  Ki. 
14  :  19, 29,  etc.  In  Chronicles  the  references  to  other  authori- 
ties are  more  numerous ;  cf.  1  Chr.  23 :  27  (R.  V.  marg.)  ; 
27:24;  29:29.  2  Chr.  9:29;  12:15;  13:22;  16:11; 
20  :  34 ;  24  :  27,  etc. 

But  in  addition  to  such  sources  as  these  which  are  named, 
the  modern  study  of  the  Old  Testament  has  discovered  the 
presence  of  other  unnamed  writings,  which  were  likewise 
used  in  the  formation  of  our  canonical,  historical  books,  — 
such  writings  or  sources  being  distinguished  largely  by  lan- 
guage, style  and  point  of  view. 

In  the  employment  then  of  previously  existing  records  the 
Old  Testament  histories  resemble  the  methods  of  modern 
historical  composition. 

When  we  inquire  further  how  these  sources  were  used,  we 
find  that  the  method  of  the  Biblical  historian  differed  from 
that  of  the  modern  historian,  for  instead  of  re-writing  and 
expressing  in  his  own  language  the  facts  derived  from  the 
various  authorities  consulted,  he  to  a  large  extent  copied  or 
excerpted  his  material  without  rewriting  it.^    It  is  this  fact 

1  This  is  also  characteristic  of  other  Eastern  histories ;  cf .  W.  R.  Smith, 
O.  T.  Jew.  Churchy  p.  328.  Camb.  Theo.  Essays  (1905),  12  ff.  H.  P. 
Smith,  0.  T.  Hist.  3.  etc. 


THE  HISTORICAL  WRITINGS  3 

which  makes  it  possible  to  separate  different  sources  where 
they  are  not  named.  To  the  portions  thus  incorporated 
chronological  data  or  religious  comments  were  frequently 
added  by  the  compiler.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  many 
chapters  of  Kings  ;  e.g.  in  1  Ej.  15  the  historical  facts  derived 
from  the  sources  referred  to  above  (cf.  vss.  7,  23,  31)  are 
found  in  vss.  6,  Ih,  12-13,  15,  16-22,  27-28 ;  the  remainder 
of  the  chapter  being  editorial  addition  of  the  character 
mentioned. 

In  other  places  little  if  any  comment  is  added ;  e.g.  in  the 
stories  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  extending  at  frequent  intervals 
from  1  Ki.  17  to  2  Ki.  13,  which  seem  clearly  to  have  been 
derived  from  a  distinct  source,  or  more  than  one  source. 

Again  where  two  or  more  sources  covered  the  same  ground 
any  one  of  three  methods  might  be  adopted  in  the  new  his- 
torical presentation  of  that  period,  (a)  Sometimes  one  ac- 
count was  adopted  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others ;  (h)  more 
often  portions  were  drawn  from  the  two  or  three  parallel 
accounts  of  the  same  event  and  fitted  together;  (c)  less 
frequently  two  accounts  of  the  same  occurrence  were  largely 
incorporated,  with  such  adjustments  or  additions  as  were 
deemed  necessary  to  form  a  unity.  The  work  of  the  final 
historian  (or  editor)  in  such  cases  was  largely  that  of  com- 
pilation and  arrangement  of  material  in  hand  ;  —  often  only 
little  was  done  by  him  in  the  way  of  actual  authorship. 
These  three  methods  are  especially  illustrated  in  the  Penta- 
teuch and  Joshua.^ 

3.  The  Moral  and  Religious  Significance  of  the 
Historical  Literature 

A.  Hebrew  history  is  much  more  than  a  mere  narration  of 
historical  or  biographical  details.  It  furnishes  these  to  a 
considerable  extent,  it  is  true,  but  its  main  end  was  to  en- 
force moral  and  religious  lessons  through  the  agency  of  the 
various  forms  and  kinds  of  literary  material  utilized.  In 
accordance  with  the  degree  in  which  this  aim  was  made 
prominent  the  Old  Testament  historical  writings  may  be 
divided  for  convenience  into  two  main  classes :  — 

1  See  quotation  from  Ryle,  p.  25  n.  ^,  giving  his  summary  of  the  dif- 
ferent methods  used  in  the  process  of  historical  compilation. 


4    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

a.  Narrative  or  descriptive  history,  which  as  the  name  im- 
pUes  simply  narrates  occurrences  and  describes  events  more 
or  less  in  detail,  which  are  considered  worthy  of  preservation 
for  their  intrinsic  interest  or  historical  value.  While  this 
type  of  history,  as  employed  in  the  Old  Testament,  illustrates 
moral  and  spiritual  truth,  this  aim  is  not  made  prominent 
nor  is  the  didactic  lesson  generally  explicitly  stated,  the 
story  instead  being  ''left  to  point  its  own  moral."  For  this 
reason  from  the  present-day  standpoint  the  teaching  legit- 
imately conveyed  by  it  is  all  the  more  real  and  convincing. 
The  classical  example  of  this  form  of  history  is  found  in  the 
account  of  David's  family  and  court  life  [2  Sam.  9-20  + 
2  Kj.  1  f.  (in  part)].  This  type  of  history  generally  prevails 
in  that  class  of  historical  writings  which  for  convenience  is 
termed  Prophetic  [cf.  below  B,  (a).]. 

6.  Didactic  or  pragmatic  history.  In  this  type  of  history 
the  literary  material,  such  as  stories  or  historical  data,  is 
employed  to  illustrate  more  distinctly  moral  and  spiritual 
principles,  which  are  clearly  stated.  The  historian  of  this 
school  did  not  consider  it  sufficient  to  let  the  story  or  history 
make  its  own  didactic  impression,  however  suggestive .  in 
religious  truth  it  might  be ;  he  sought  rather  to  emphasize 
by  definite  statement  the  great  principles  illustrated  by  the 
specific  event  described  or  by  the  period  under  review.  This 
method  began  with  the  eighth  century  prophets  as  they  found 
in  the  events  of  history  evidences  of  God's  overruling  provi- 
dence. To  them  the  events  of  history  had  a  moral  significance  ; 
e.g.  the  world-powers  were  agents  in  Jehovah's  hands  for  the 
punishment  of  national  sin  (cf .  Isa.  10 :  5  ff .) ;  and  as  they 
looked  into  the  past  and  reviewed  it  they  sought  to  illustrate 
its  religious  significance  by  the  events  recorded.  A  good 
illustration  of  this  kind  of  history  is  found  in  the  story  of 
Saul's  rejection  by  Samuel  (1  Sam.  15),  where  the  details  are 
used  to  enforce  the  great  religious  lesson  in  which  the  interest 
of  the  narrative  culminates,  viz.  the  supreme  duty  of  im- 
pUcit  obedience  to  Jehovah  (vss.  22  f.). 

This  historical  method  is  seen  in  its  most  highly  developed 
form  in  the  Deuteronomic  school  of  historians  [cf.  below 
B.  (c).],  and  also  the  lessons  set  forth  in  the  books  of  Judges 
and  Kings  by  the  Deuteronomic  compilers,  pp.  45  f.,  55  f.^ 

1  Cf.  further  in  Cen.  B.,  Kennedy,  Sam.  9  ff. ;  Skinner,  Ki.  14  flP.; 
also  EBi,  ii.  2079  (Moore). 


THE   HISTORICAL  WRITINGS  5 

B,  This  fundamental  religious  aim  and  interest  of  Old 
Testament  history  may  be  classified  also  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  different  religious  ideals  or  principles,  which  were  em- 
phasized by  different  religious  classes  or  schools  of  thought. 
Thus  (a)  the  teaching  of  one  school  of  writers  was  funda- 
mentally in  fine  with  the  great  ethical  and  spiritual  principles 
which  found  expression  in  the  prophets  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury (Amos,  Isaiah,  etc.)  and  following,  and  hence  may 
appropriately  be  termed  Prophetic ;  (b)  another  evinced 
a  marked  interest  in  matters  relating  to  the  priesthood  and 
the  religious  institutions  of  the  nation ;  (c)  still  another 
wrote  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code  (pro- 
phetico-priestly  =  a  mediating  school  between  the  prophetic 
and  priestly  points  of  view),  and  naturally  their  emphasis, 
even  when  reviewing  the  same  historical  situations,  differed 
more  or  less.^ 

One  can  readily  see  in  reading  the  books  of  Chronicles 
what  the  religious  standpoint  and  fundamental  interest  of 
this  writer  or  school  were,  viz.  those  of  the  priesthood  and 
religious  institutions  of  the  nation. 

Of.  for  example  the  account  of  bringiQg  up  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem 
(1  Chr.  15)  with  2  Sam.  6:  11  ff.,  and  note  the  evident  priestly 
interest  of  the  Chronicler.  (Cf.  also  vss.  12  f.,  =  the  cause  of 
Jehovah's  anger,  with  2  Sam.  6  :  6  ff.) 

Another  good  illustration  is  a  comparison  of  2  Chr.  23  with 
2  Ki.  11 :  4  ff.  Notice  here  especially  that  the  Levites  and  priests 
in  Chronicles  (vss.  4  ff.)  take  the  place  of  the  Carites,  etc.  (=  the 
military  bodyguard)  of  2  Ki.  11 : 4  ff. 

Again  in  reading  the  history  of  the  Divided  Kingdom  as 
given  in  the  books  of  Kings  (1  Ki.  12  ff.),  in  the  comments 
upon  the  different  reigns  one  can  readily  perceive  that 
the  point  of  view  from  which  they  are  judged  is  the  Deu- 
teronomic Code.  The  same  standpoint  is  also  very  ap- 
parent in  many  other  portions  of  these  books. 

This  is  seen  in  the  frequent  employment  of  Deuteronomic 
phraseology ;  e.g.  "  do  (or  "  did")  that  which  was  evil  (or  ^^  right") 

1  The  order  stated  here  is  not  the  chronological  one,  as  the  Deuter- 
onomic school  of  historians  preceded  the  priestly.  It  seems  best  at  this 
point  for  clearness  of  impression  to  adopt  the  order  as  above. 


6    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

in  the  sight  of  Jehovah,"  1  Ki.  14:8,  22;   15:5,  11,  26,  34;    cf. 
Deut.  4  :  25 ;    12  :  25,  etc.^ 

But  more  especially  is  it  to  be  noticed  that  the  judgments  ex- 
pressed are  based  upon  the  provisions  and  spirit  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic  Code;  e.g.  1  Ki.  11 :  9,  13,  34,  38;  14  :  7-11,  etc. ;  cf.  with 
Deut.  4  :  2,  40  ;  5  :  29,  and  throughout  the  book.  The  disapproval 
of  the  **  high  places  "  of  the  Southern  Kingdom,  and  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  shrines  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  are  based  on  the  Deu- 
teronomic  enactment  relating  to  the  central  sanctuary ;  e.g.  1  Ki. 
14  :  7  ff. ;  15  :  14,  etc. ;  cf.  Deut.  12  :  1-28.  Cf.  also  the  sum- 
mary 2  Ki.  17  :  7-23  with  Deut.  12  :  1  ff.,  29-32  ;  16  :  21  f. ;  17  : 
2-7.    Cf.  also  2  Ki.  14  :  6  with  Deut.  24  :  16.    See  further,  pp.  55  f . 

In  reading  such  books  as  Genesis  or  Samuel,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  stories  are  found  to  illustrate  largely  the  points 
of  view  which  ultimately  found  higher  expression  in  Israel's 
great  prophets. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  is  a  remarkable  variety 
and  inclusiveness  in  the  religious  spirit  illustrated  in  the 
Old  Testament  history.  This  was  natural  and  legitimate, 
each  school  furnishing  its  own  special  contribution  to  the 
moral  and  religious  value  of  this  group  of  writings.  The 
general  principle  may  be  laid  down,  that  the  question  of 
sources  in  the  historical  composition  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  to  a  considerable  extent  a  matter  of  religious  point  of  view 
or  interpretation  ^ ;  such  points  of  view  corresponding,  as 
already  stated,  to  different  schools  of  thought,  and  it  may 
be  added  in  large  measure  marking  different  stages  and 
periods  in  the  change  and  progress  of  religious  conceptions 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  sequence  of  prophetic,  Deu- 
teronomic  and  priestly  interest  and  interpretation  is  the 
chronological  one,  though  the  didactic  and  Deuteronomic 
historians  did  not  entirely  supplant  the  earlier  type  of 
Prophetic  narrators.  In  accordance  with  this  order  his- 
torical and  biographical  records,  dating  from  the  past,  were 
retold  or  supplemented  in  such  ways  as  were  deemed  neces- 
sary to  give  a  clearer  interpretation,  or  different  spiritual 
lessons,  or  to  emphasize  cherished  rehgious  customs  and  in- 
stitutions, from  the  standpoint  of  the  particular  writer  or 

^For  lists  of  many  other  parallel  phrases  and  expressions,  see  LOT, 
200  ff. ;  HDB,  ii.  859  f. 

2  This  is  of  course  a  characterization  "broadly  true"  and  needs  to  be 
taken  as  such. 


THE   HISTORICAL  WRITINGS  7 

writers.  Thus  to  the  Prophetic  type  of  stories,  which  are 
found  in  the  book  of  Judges,  which  were  written  in  the  pre- 
exihc  period,  were  added  by  a  later  historian  (or  editor)  di- 
dactic lessons  based  on  the  language  and  spirit  of  the  Deu- 
teronomic  Code  (see  pp.  45  ff.).  In  the  same  manner  the 
Prophetic  and  Deuteronomic  types  of  historical  narratives 
of  the  pre-exiHc  Kingdoms,  as  foimd  in  the  books  of  Samuel 
and  Kings,  while  largely  utiUzed,  are  given  a  different 
interpretation  and  emphasis  in  the  late,  Priestly  books  of 
Chronicles  (cf.  pp.  63  ff.). 

4.  The  Historical  Value  of  this  Narrative  Material 

A  detailed,  critical  discussion  of  the  historical  value  of 
debated  sections  of  the  Old  Testament  narratives  does  not 
belong  to  the  province  of  this  volume.  Since,  however,  this 
is  a  question  which  is  closely  connected  with  the  literary 
character  and  chronological  problems  of  the  historical  rec- 
ords, as  well  as  with  the  standpoint  of  reUgious  interpreta- 
tion from  which  they  were  written  (cf .  the  statement  above, 
3.  B.  pp.  5  ff .),  some  discussion  of  it,  as  far  as  these  aspects  of 
it  are  concerned,  is  necessary.  One  of  the  all-important  facts, 
which  needs  to  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  in  estimating  this 
group  of  writings,  has  already  been  discussed,  viz.  that  the 
fundamental  interest  in  the  historical  books  is  not  after  all 
history  but  rehgion.  They  are  much  more  than  annals  or 
text  books  of  history  (though  most  valuable  from  this  point 
of  view).  They  are  primarily  books  of  moral  and  spiritual 
interpretation  and  illustration.  What  would  best  serve  this 
end  was  apparently  selected,  whatever  its  strictly  intrinsic 
historical  value  may  have  been. 

With  this  prefatory  statement  in  mind  the  two  main  lines 
of  consideration  referred  to  above  will  now  be  noticed. 

a.  The  first  is  the  strictly  historical  or  chronological  one. 
What  is  the  relation  of  the  various  sources  of  the  historical 
books  to  the  characters  and  events  they  describe  in  point  of 
chronology?  Can  these  in  all  cases,  whether  from  the 
standpoint  of  narrative  or  didactic  history,  or  of  Prophetic, 
Deuteronomic  or  Priestly  history,  be  classified  strictly  as  his- 
tory? Not  if  we  take  as  our  definition  of  it,  that  which 
*' reposes,  however  remotely,  on  contemporary  witness  to 


8    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

the  facts  narrated, "  ^  f or  while  much  of  the  historical  material 
practically  conforms  to  this  test  {e.g.  2  Sam.  9-20  =  the 
narratives  of  David's  family  and  court  life ;  Neh.  1 : 1-7  :  73a 
=  Nehemiah's  Memoirs,  etc.),  on  the  other  hand  much  more 
cannot  truly  meet  it,  especially  the  stories  relating  to  the 
earlier  periods ;  i.e.  from  Primitive  Times  to  the  end  of  the 
period  of  the  Judges  at  least.  From  the  chronological  stand- 
point these  narratives  may  be  classed  broadly  as  traditional 
material,  i.e.  stories  the  date  of  whose  origin  cannot  be  de- 
termined with  certainty,  which  were  handed  down  possibly 
by  guilds  of  professional  story  tellers  or  singers,  or  else 
preserved  in  priestly  or  prophetic  centres. 

Those  who  discuss  this  subject  more  in  detail,  and  especially 
those  who  seek  to  determine  the  origin  and  significance  of  these 
early  stories,  are  wont  to  make  more  scientific  distinctions  in  this 
material.  Thus  such  terms  as  "myth"  and  'legend"  are  em- 
ployed, especially  in  reference  to  the  stories  of  Genesis.  A  myth 
strictly  is  a  story  which  relates  to  the  gods,  having  its  origin  in 
the  influence  upon  the  primitive  mind  of  the  phenomena  of  nature 
and  the  attempt  to  account  for  them;  while  a  legend  ''attaches 
itself  to  the  personages  and  movements  of  real  history."  ^  Cf. 
also  the  statement  that  ''the  myth  is  the  parable  of  the  world's 
childhood"  containing  no  "fact";  while  "legend,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  contain  'facts'  .  .  .  but  fact  so  modified  and  colored 
by  thought  that  it  is  always  difficult,  and  not  seldom  impossible, 
to  recover  just  what  really  happened.  It  thus  belongs  to  a  later 
stage  in  human  development."  ^ 

It  is  maintained  that  the  O.  Test,  contains  no  myth  of  Hebrew 
origin  {i.e.  Jehovah  myth),  but  Gen.  1-11  is  made  up  of  stories 
of  which  some,  as  the  accounts  of  Creation  (chaps.  1-2)  and  that 
of  the  Deluge  (6  :  9-9  :  17),  had  their  origin  certainly  in  the  Baby- 
lonian mythology,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  the  external  points  of 
resemblance,  when  the  Bibhcal  and  Babylonian  forms  of  these 
narratives  are  compared. 

This  important  fact,  however,  is  to  be  noticed,  that  these  early 

1  Ency.  Brit.,  art.  "History,"  p.  19,  quoted  in  Gordon,  Early  Trad. 
Gen.  76.  Cf.  Skinner's  definition,  "history  in  the  technical  sense  is  an 
authentic  record  of  actual  events  based  on  documents  contemporary,  or 
nearly  contemporary,  with  the  facts  narrated."     Gen.,  p.  iii. 

2  Cf.  Skinner,  Gen.  iii  ff.,  viii  ff. 

3  From  Sprott,  Inspir.  and  the  O.  T.,  quoted  in  Ryle,  Gen.  xxxii  ff. 
Cf.  also  Schultz,  O.  T.  Theol.  i.  pp.  18-31.  Gordon,  Early  Trad.  Gen. 
76  ff.  Kittel,  Scient.  Study  O.  T.  17  f.,  257  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  5  f. 
Gunkel,  Legends  of  Gen.    Kirkpatrick,  Div.  Library,  etc.,  n.  C,  153  ff.,  etc. 


THE   HISTORICAL  WRITINGS  9 

traditions,  which  were  ultimately  derived  from  the  Babylonian 
literature,  were  ''born  again"  by  the  lofty,  transforming  power  of 
the  Hebrew  religious  endowment,  and  were  largely  stripped  of 
the  polytheistic  and  crass  elements  found  in  the  Babylonian 
originals,  and  were  made  the  vehicles  of  conveying  profound 
rehgious  truth  to  the  Hebrews.  Cf.  the  statement  by  Dr.  G.  P. 
Fisher  that  the  first  three  chapters  of  Genesis  ''contain  more 
moral  and  religious  truth  than  all  other  books  taken  together, 
which  have  been  written  independently  of  the  Bible."  ^ 

In  this  connection  the  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized that  traditional  history  does  not  mean  necessarily 
records  destitute  of  historical  value.  Even  in  the  case  of  the 
remote  Patriarchal  period  few  scholars  to-day  would  regard 
the  records  of  it  (Gen.  12  ff .)  as  containing  nothing  of  historic 
worth,  while  many  careful  students  are  convinced  of  the 
substantial  credibility  of  the  essential  events  recorded. ^ 

h.  The  second  consideration  in  estimating  the  historical 
value  of  the  sources  of  the  historical  books  is  the  literary  one. 
Various  types  of  hterary  expression,  many  of  them  common 
to  the  literature  of  all  peoples,  are  found  embodied  in  the 
historical  writings  of  the  Old  Testament ;  e.g.  fables  (Judg. 
9  :  8-15 ;  2  Ki.  14 :  9  fT.) ;  parables  (2  Sam.  12  : 1-6 ;  14 : 4-8 ; 
a  type  of  literature  frequently  employed  by  the  prophets 
for  didactic  purposes,  cf.  Isa.  5  :  1  ff . ;  Ezek.  15-17  ;  23,  etc.) ; 
idyls  (the  book  of  Ruth) ;  law  in  narrative  form  (Num.  31) ; 
literary  prediction  in  poetic  form,  in  which  by  poetic  license 
writers  of  later  times  described  issues  and  events,  realized  in 
history  in  their  day,  in  the  poetic  form  of  predictions 
of  earlier  times  (Gen.  9:25-27;  25:23;  27  :  27-29,  etc.). ^ 
Much  of  such  forms  of  literature  and  other  types  found  in 
the  historical  books,  it  is  needless  to  say,  does  not  belong 
to  the  domain  of  strict  history. 

Another  literary  element  also  has  a  very  important  bearing 
on  this  problem,  viz.  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Hebrew 

i-Fisher,  Nature  and  Method  of  Revel.  31.  Cf.  also  the  Comms.  of 
Bennett,  Driver,  Ryle,  Skinner,  etc.,  on  Gen.  1-11.  Ryle,  Early  Narrs. 
Gen.     Mitchell,  World  Before  Abr.,  etc. 

2  Cf.  the  able  discussion  of  this  topic  in  Driver,  Gen.  xliii  ff.  For  a 
briefer  and  more  guarded  statement  see  Ryle,  Gen.  xxxix  ff. 

3  Such  poems  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  those  which  re- 
late to  events  of  their  day,  i.e.  of  contemporary  origin,  such  as  the  Song 
of  Deborah  (Judg.  5),  David's  lament  for  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  Sam. 
1 :  17  ff.),  etc. 


10  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

historian,  in  reviewing  and  describing  an  age  remote  from 
his  day,  to  ideaUze  it  and  to  transfer  the  conditions  and  con- 
ceptions of  his  own  age  back  into  his  dehneation  of  the  past. 
Thus  in  the  many  anecdotes  and  biographical  tales,  in  which 
the  historical  books  abound,  especially  those  relating  to  the 
earlier  periods  of  history,  a  considerable  element  of  idealiza- 
tion is  generally  recognized  as  a  part  of  their  literary  repre- 
sentation ;  e.g.  the  strikingly  dramatic  element  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  plot  in  the  graphic  Joseph  stories  (Gen.  37 ; 
39  ff.)-  This  holds  true  in  descriptive  history  in  many  in- 
stances; e.g.  the  idealistic  representation  of  Solomon's 
reign  (1  Ki.  4  :  20-26  ;  10  :  27).  As  a  part  of  this  tendency 
are  the  later  religious  reviews  of  the  past ;  e.g.  the  Deuter- 
onomic  treatment  of  the  period  of  the  Judges  as  a  time  of 
repeated  apostasy,  punishment,  repentance  and  deliverance 
(cf.  Judg.  3  :  7-11,  etc. ;  see  further  under  Judges,  pp.  45  f.). 
In  the  books  of  Chronicles  this  literary  method  has  a  most 
striking  illustration  in  the  constant  idealization  of  the  past, 
and  the  representation  of  the  past  in  terms  of  the  religious 
standards  and  customs  of  late  post-exilic  times.   See  pp.  5, 63  ff . 

The  significant  comment  of  that  able  and  cautious  scholar,  the 
late  Professor  Davidson,  in  reference  to  Judges  has  a  wider 
application  to  this  literary  characteristic  as  a  whole  in  the  Old 
Testament.  "The  question  naturally  arises,  Is  this  frame,  with 
its  regular  movement  of  apostasy,  subjugation,  penitence,  and 
deliverance,  many  times  repeated,  strict  history?  Probably  it 
is  not.  It  is  rather  the  religious  philosophy  of  the  history.  It  is 
a  summary  of  the  historical  movements,  written  under  the  idea 
that  Jehovah  presided  in  the  history  of  Israel ;  and  to  bring  it 
down  to  our  own  level  we  must  read  second  causes  into  the  move- 
ments and  the  operations  of  the  people's  mind.  The  author 
speaks  of  Israel  as  an  ideal  unity,  and  attributes  to  this  unity  defec- 
tions which  no  doubt  characterized  only  fragments  of  the  whole ; 
for  a  falling  away  of  a  whole  people  to  Baal,  and  then  a  conversion 
of  it  to  Jehovah,  to  be  followed  by  a  similar  falling  away  again, 
twenty  or  forty  years  after,  is  not  after  the  manner  of  history,  or 
in  accordance  with  the  operations  of  the  human  mind  or  heart." 
Cf.  also  this  further  statement  from  the  same  author:  "Writers 
on  Okl  Testament  theology  are  feeling  themselves  constrained 
to  say  that  the  religious  conceptions  which  appear  in  histories 
and  narratives  can  be  certainly  held  to  be  true  expressions  of 
belief  only  for  the  time  at  which  the  histories  were  written  down, 


THE   HISTORICAL  WRITINGS  11 

and  not  for  the  remote  periods  which  they  may  describe.  The 
writers  necessarily  threw  back  their  own  modes  of  thought  upon 
the  earher  times  of  which  they  wrote."  ^ 

From  this  summary  of  the  question  it  will  be  seen  that 

(a)  the  age  of  the  sources  as  related  to  the  times  they  describe, 

(b)  the  kinds  of  literature  and  (c)  the  literary  characteristics 
of  the  Hebrew  historians  are  important  factors  in  the  study 
of  Old  Testament  history. 

5.  The  Distinction  between  the  Narrative  Descrip- 
tion OF  a^Period  and  the  Literature  Originating 
in  It 

Attention  has  already  been  called  in  the  Preface  (p.  ix) 
to  the  importance  of  differentiating  between  the  narrative 
material  relating  to  a  period  or  reign,  and  the  literary  produc- 
tions which  have  their  origin  in  that  period  or  reign.  A  clear 
distinction  often  has  to  be  made  betw^een  the  two,  for  the 
former  may  belong  to  a  date  considerably  later  than  the  time 
it  describes  (i.e.  not  contemporary  history),  and  this  in 
turn  may  be  employed  by  a  still  later  historian  as  a  basis  or 
vehicle  for  illustrating  certain  great  religious  lessons.  Such 
narratives  in  many  respects  may  be  less  valuable  really  as 
a  first-hand  source  of  information  for  the  time  in  question, 
than  literary  productions  of  a  different  character,  such  as 
poetry  or  prophecy,  which  are  of  contemporary  origin. 

For  example,  in  the  period  of  the  Judges,  the  Song  of 
Deborah  (Judg.  5)  is  the  only  portion  of  literature  of  w^hich 
it  can  be  affirmed  with  certainty  that  it  is  of  contemporary 
origin.2  It  is  very  valuable  in  furnishing  first-hand  informa- 
tion of  the  condition  of  Israel  at  that  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  narratives  relating  to  this  period,  i.e.  the  stories 
concerning  the  various  judges,  w^ere  written  at  the  earhest 
soon  after  the  division  of  the  Kingdom,  937  B.C.,  and  by  a 
number  of  scholars  are  dated  considerably  later ;  w^hile  the 
Deuteronomic  editing  of  these  records,  incorporating  the 
didactic  lessons,  is  as  late  as  the  Exile. 

1  Davidson,  O.  T.  Prophc.  31,  314,  cf.  also  62. 

2  For  other  literature  which  may  possibly  have  had  its  origin  in  this 
period,  cf.  pp.  50  f.  ii. ;  iii.  /. ;  54,  iv. 


12  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

Another  illustration  is  found  in  the  contemporary  pro- 
phetic records  of  the  eighth  century  B.C.  These  are  more 
helpful  in  many  instances  for  gaining  a  true  insight  into  the 
life  of  that  period  than  the  historical  narratives  of  the  books 
of  Kings,  which  relate  to  that  century,  and  much  more  valuable 
than  the  still  later  representations  given  in  the  books  of 
Chronicles. 

These  facts,  together  with  those  relating  to  the  composition 
and  general  literary  characteristics  of  the  Old  Testament 
historical  books,  to  which  attention  has  been  called  in 
the  preceding  pages,  are  important  considerations  in  the 
chronological  arrangement  and  interpretation  of  the  Old 
Testament. 


I-IV.  A.  Introductory  and  Explanatory  Notes  to  the  His- 
tory AND  Literature  relating  to  the  Primitive  Times  ; 
THE  Patriarchal  Period  ;  the  Exodus  and  Desert 
Wanderings  ;  and  the  Conquest  of  Palestine 

The  historical  details  relating  to  these  periods  are  found  in 
the  first  six  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  —  that  is  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  Joshua.^  The  latter  book,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  its  constituent  parts  are  a  continuation  of  the  same 
sources  found  in  the  Pentateuch,  is  now  usually  classed 
with  it,  and  the  group  of  six  books  is  termed  the  Hexateuch. 

1.  The  Sources  of  the  Hexateuch 

Four  sources  contributed  to  the  formation  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch :  a  two-fold  Prophetic  narrative ;  a  Priestly,  and  a 
Deuteronomic  record,  in  each  of  which  is  included  a  legal 
code.  These  are  distinguished  by  use  of  words,  phraseology, 
points   of  view,   and  religious  teaching   and   conceptions.^ 

a.  One  of  the  Prophetic  narratives  is  called  the  Jehovistic, 
from  the  fact  that  up  to  Exodus  3 :  14  f.  it  is  the  only  one 
of  the  documents  that  uses  the  di\dne  name  '' Jehovah" 
(rendered  ''Lord",  E.  V.^).  It  is  usually  designated  by  the 
letter  J.^ 

1  To  these  books  should  be  added  Judg.  1:1-2:  5.     See  pp.  41  ff.,  IV.  B. 

2  The  attention  of  the  reader  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  headings  of 
the  books  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  English  versions,  in  which  the  name 
of  Closes  is  connected  with  them,  are  not  a  part  of  the  original  records. 
By  the  Jews  each  of  these  was  known  simply  by  the  opening  words  of 
the  Hebrew  text.  Thus  Genesis  was  termed  "  BWeshith,''  the  Hebrew 
for  "In  the  beginning"  (1:  1);  Exodus  by  the  Hebrew  for  ''These  are 
the  words''  or  more  briefly  by  "Words"  (1 :  1),  etc.  For  the  relation  of 
Moses  to  the  legal  portions,  cf.  pp.  37  f.,  129  f.,  247. 

^  Two  Hebrew  di\ine  names  are  translated  alike  as  "Lord"  in  the 
E.  V.  In  the  American  Standard  edition,  however,  they  are  distin- 
guished, one  being  rendered  "Lord"  and  the  other  "Jehovah."  It  is 
the  latter  which  characterizes  this  Prophetic  source  (J). 

*  Cf.  Kent's  designation  for  this  group  of  narratives,  viz.  "The  Judean 
Prophetic."     His  Beginnings,  etc.,  31. 

13 


14  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

The  term  Jahvist  or  Yahwist  is  very  frequently  employed  to 
designate  this  source,  based  on  the  more  correct  spelling  of  the 
divine  name,  viz.  Jahweh  or  Yahveh.  As  the  form  Jehovah,  how- 
ever, has  an  established  position  in  English  usage  and  is  adopted 
throughout  in  the  American  Revised  version  of  the  O.  T.  it  seems 
best  to  use  the  more  familiar  ^'Jehovistic"  term  in  this  volume. 
It  should  be  noted  that  Wellhausen,  followed  by  other  scholars, 
appUes  the  name  ''Jehovist"  to  the  compiler  who  united  J  and 
Etoform  JE.  (cf.  p.  24  n.^). 

It  is  characterized  by  a  flowing  style,  vivid  descriptions 
and  picturesque  details;  e.g.  Gen.  2:4-25;  3;  11:1-9; 
18 ;  19,  etc.i 

The  divine  presence  and  manifestation  to  mankind  are 
made  prominent  in  striking  anthropomorphic  descriptions; 
e.g.  Jehovah  breathes  in  man  (Gen.  2:7);  walks  in  the  garden 
(3:8);  shuts  the  door  of  the  ark  (7 :  166) ;  removes  the 
wheels  from  the  chariots  of  the  Egyptians  (Ex.  14 :  25) ; 
cf.  also  Gen.  11 :  5  ff. ;   18  :  22  ff.,  etc. 

Similarly  intense  feeling  and  emotion  are  attributed  to 
Jehovah  {e.g.  Gen.  6  :  6  f . ;  Ex.  4  :  14  f : ;  32 :  14,  etc.). 

An  interest  in  matters  of  an  historical  and  national  charac- 
ter is  conspicuous  {e.g.  Gen.  4  : 1  ff. ;  6  : 1-4) ;  J's  account 
of  the  Flood  2;  J's  account  of  the  Patriarchs,  12  ff .^ ;  in 
contrast  to  the  Priestly  writers'  special  interest  in  matters 
of  a  theocratic  and  institutional  character.     Cf.  below,  c. 

The  early  origin  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah  and  its  subse- 
quent observance  are  carefully  chronicled  {e.g.  Gen.  4 :  26 ; 
8:20;12:7f. ;  13:4,18;  21:33;  26:25,  etc.). 

Note  also  J's  special  interest  in  the  etymologies  of  names  {e.g. 
Gen.  2:23;  3:20;   11:9;   16:14;   19  :  37  f.,  etc.). 

b.  The  other  Prophetic  source  is  termed  the  Elohistic  on 
account  of  its  preference  for  the  name  Elohim  ( =  the  com- 
mon Hebrew  name  for  God)  up  to  Ex.  3  :  15.     Subsequently 

1  "In  all  languages,  one  writer  is  distinguished  from  another  not  so 
much  by  the  peculiarity  of  the  words  which  he  employs  (though  of  course 
when  such  peculiarity  exists,  it  is  a  distinguishing  mark)  as  by  the  manner 
in  which  he  combines  words  common  to  himself  and  others  ...  prefer- 
ence and  combination  are  the  distinguishing  marks  which  differentiate 
one  writer  from  another."     Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  55. 

2  For  the  J  section  of  the  Flood  story,  cf.  p.  30,  ii.  b. 

3  For  the  J  account  of  the  Patriarchs,  cf.  pp.  30  ff. 


PRIMITIVE    TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       15 

in  this  narrative  Jehovah  is  frequently  used.  This  Prophetic 
source  is  usually  denoted  by  the  letter  E.^ 

E,  which  is  much  more  limited  in  quantity  than  J,  does 
not  really  begin  till  Gen.  20.^  It  has  many  characteristics 
in  common  with  the  latter  though  it  is  narrower  in  scope, 
—  no  attempt  being  made,  as  in  J,  to  connect  Israel's  early 
history  with  that  of  the  world;  cf.  J  in  Gen.  2-11.  It  is 
also  somewhat  less  pictorial  and  less  anthropomorphic. 
God's  revelations  of  Himself  come  through  dreams  and 
visions  {e.g.  Gen.  20  :  3,  6  ;  46  :  2,  etc.),  and  by  word  from 
angels  (Gen.  21:17;  22:11),  who  also  lead  and  direct 
(Ex.  14:19a;  23:20,  etc.). 

Prominence  is  given  to  the  prophetic  gift  and  ofhce 
(Gen.  20:7,  17;  Ex.  15:20;  Num.  11:246-30;  12:1- 
13,  etc.).  The  existence  of  idolatry  among  Israel's  ancestors 
is  recognized  (Gen.  31  :  19  ;  35  :  2-4  ;  Josh.  24  :  2).  Accord- 
ing to  E  the  divine  name  Jehovah  was  not  known  to  the 
Patriarchs  (Ex.  3:13ff.). 

These  two  Prophetic  documents,  which,  relatively  to  the 
other  two  sources  of  the  Hexateuch,  form  a  unit,  will  often  in 
this  volume  be  treated  as  such,  especially  after  Ex.  3,  being  rep- 
resented by  the  symbol  JE.^  They  are  termed  Prophetic, 
because  their  standpoint,  while  not  on  the  same  lofty  moral 
and  spiritual  plane  as  the  prophets  of  the  eighth  century  and 
following  (i.e.  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  etc.),  anticipates  in  many 
ways  the  teaching  of  these  great  religious  leaders  of  Israel, 
having  a  clearly  defined  didactic  -purpose  and  message ;  — 
the  moral  and  religious  lessons  being  accentuated  by  the 
brilliant  descriptive  and  pictorial  setting.  J  especially  is 
''the  story  teller  and  the  dramatist  of  the  Old  Testament."  ^ 

These  two  sources  together  (JE)  contain  the  much  greater 
proportion  of  the  historical  records  of  the  Hexateuch. 

In  addition  to  the  characteristics  of  the  sources  mentioned 
above  and  in  the  following  pages,  each  is  marked  by  a  preference 

^  Cf.  Kent's  name  for  these  narratives,  viz.  "The  Ephraimite  Pro- 
phetic."    Cf.  his  Beginnings,  etc.,  37  f. 

2  Cf.,  however,  a  few  verses  of  E  in  Gen.  15 ;   see  p.  31,  A,  i.  h. 

3  Cf.  also  the  statement,  p.  33,  A.\.  a. 

*  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  66  (§  927).  Note  also  Moore's  sugges- 
tion of  the  term  "Popular  History"  for  the  Prophetic  stories  (EBi,  ii. 
1670,  n.  2;  cf.  1673).  See  further  Driver,  Gen.  xiv.  W-  R.  Harper, 
Amos,  etc.,  Ixxii,  n.*.     Cf.,  however,  Skinner,  Gen.  li  f. 


16         AN  INTRODUCTION  TO   THE   OLD   TESTAIVIENT 

for  certain  words,  phrases  and  constructions.  Many  of  these 
can  be  readily  recognized  in  the  E.  V. ;  others  can  be  distinguished 
only  in  the  Hebrew.  Thus  J  and  E,  as  already  noticed,  up  to 
Ex.  3:15  prefer  different  divine  names  (see  pp.  13-15).  J  pre- 
fers the  terms  Canaanite  (Gen.  10 :  18  ;  Num.  14:43,  45,  etc.), 
Sinai  (Ex.  19  :  115,  18,  20 ;  34  :  2,  4),  Israel  as  a  personal  name  for 
Jacob  after  Gen.  35  :  22  (cf.  Gen.  37  :  3,  13a;  43  :  6,  8,  11,  etc.) ; 
E  prefers  the  corresponding  names,  Amorite  (Gen.  48 :  22 ; 
Josh.  24 :  8,  15,  18,  etc.),  Horeb  or  mountain  of  God  (Ex.  3:1; 
4 :  27,  etc.),  and  Jacob  throughout. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  words  and  phrases  they  possess  in  com- 
mon, by  which  they  are  clearly  separated  from  the  other  sources, 
especially  the  Priestly  document  =  P,  are  much  more  in  number ; 
e.g.  ''and  it  came"  (or  ''  shall  come")  'Ho  pass  when"  (Gen.  4 :  8 
=  J;  20:13  =E;  etc.);  "build  an  altar"  (Gen.  8:20  =  J; 
22:9  =  E;  etc.);  "in  that  (or  "the  same")  day"  or  "night"; 
and  "unto  this  day"  (Gen.  15:18  =  J;  26 :  24,  32  f .  =  J ; 
48  :  20  =  E ;  etc.) ;  "to  ask"  or  "inquire"  (Gen.  24  :  47,  57  =  J  ; 
40  :  7  =  E)  and  over  a  hundred  other  words  and  expressions.^ 

Scholars  are  agreed  that  E  belongs  to  the  Northern  Kingdom. 
This  is  showTi  by  the  interest  which  it  manifests  in  the  places  and 
persons  of  the  north  :  e.g.  Bethel  (Gen.  28  :  18  f. ;  31 :  13  ;  35  :  1) ; 
Shechem  (Gen.  35:4;  Josh.  24:1,  32,  etc.);  the  leadership  of 
Reuben  in  the  Joseph  stories,  cf .  Judah  in  J  below  (Gen.  37  :  22, 
29  f. ;   42  :  37),  etc. 

While  the  evidence  for  the  origin  of  J  in  the  Southern  Kingdom 
is  not  so  conclusive,  and  there  has  not  been  the  same  unanimity  of 
opinion  among  scholars  as  in  the  case  of  E,  yet  this  is  the  view 
which  is  more  commonly  held  and  seems  the  more  probable  one. 
In  its  favor  may  be  mentioned :  (a)  the  improbability  that  an- 
other narrative,  traversing  practically  the  same  ground,  parallel 
in  so  many  of  its  details,  but  at  the  same  time  having  marked 
points  of  difference,  should  have  had  its  origin  also  in  the  Northern 
Kingdom  ;  (5)  the  prominence  given  in  J  to  Abraham's  connection 
wdth  Hebron  =  in  Judah  (Gen.  13  :  18 ;  18 :  1  ff.) ;  (c)  the  lead- 
ing place  occupied  by  Judah  (not  Reuben  as  in  E,  cf.  above)  in 
the  Joseph  stories  (Gen.  37:26;  43:8;  44:16,  18  ff.) ;  and 
(d)  the  presence  in  J  of  stories  of  special  interest  to  Judah,  which 
would  not  likely  have  been  preserved  in  the  Northern  Kingdom 
{e.g.  Gen.  38).^ 

1  Cf.  LOT,  117  f.  HDB,  ii.  145  (Ryle) ;  373a  (Woods).  Driver, 
Gen.  xi  ff.,  xvii  ff.     For  a  complete  list  see  CHB,  Hex.  i.  185  ff.,  192  ff. 

2  Cf.  further  LOT,  122  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  69  f.,  72  (§§  930  f., 
933).  HDB,  ii.  145  (Ryle) ;  3736  (Woods).  CHB,  Hex.  i.  104  f.,  116  f., 
etc. 


PRIMITIVE   TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       17 

c.  A  third  source  of  the  Hexateuch  is  the  Priestly  docu- 
ment, which  is  commonly  marked  by  the  letter  P. 

It  is  characterized  by  a  more  formal  and  less  varied  style 
than  JE,  what  Professor  Bennett  terms  ''a  schedule-style."  ^ 
This  is  seen  in  the  repetition  of  set  phrases,  e.g.  ''and  there 
was  evening  and  there  was  morning"  (Gen.  1 : 5,  8,  13,  etc.) 
' 'and  it  was  good, "  "and  it  was  so"  (Gen.  1 :  7,  9, 10, 11,  etc.) ; 
and  descriptions  alike  in  phraseology  (cf.  "the  migration 
formula, "  Gen.  12  :  5 ;  31 :  18  ;  36  : 6  and  46  :  6 ;  also  cf.  23  :  19 
with  25  :  9 ;  49  :  30  and  50  :  13).  Further,  this  is  illustrated 
in  the  stereotyped  frameworks  or  settings  employed;  e.g. 
the  genealogical  outhne  in  Gen.  5  (cf.  vss.  3-5  with  6-8, 
9-11,  12-14,  etc.).  There  is  a  marked  absence  of  the  vivid 
and  pictorial  features  of  the  JE  descriptions. 

The  folloTving  are  some  of  the  words  and  expressions  charac- 
teristic of  P  :  "kind"  (Gen.  1 :  11  f.,  21,  24  f . ;  6  :  20,  etc.) ;  "to 
be  fruitful  and  multiply"  (Gen.  1:22,  28;  8:  17,  etc.);  "in  the 
selfsame  day"  (Gen.  7  :  13  ;  17  :  23,  26,  etc.) ;  "after  their  (your) 
families"  (Gen.  8  :  19  ;  10  :  5,  20,  31,  etc.) ;  "congregation"  used 
of  the  Israelites  (Ex.  12  :  3,  6,  19,  47 ;  16  :  1  f.,  9  f.,  22,  etc.),  and 
many  others.^ 

This  document  also  stands  in  sharp  contrast  to  JE  in  the 
entire  absence  of  all  anthropomorphic  conceptions,  even  in 
descriptions  in  which  God  is  represented  as  appearing  to 
man  (e.g.  Gen.  17  ;  35  :  9-13,  etc.) ;  nor  is  there  any  reference 
to  dreams  or  angels  as  mediating  agencies  between  God  and 
man  as  in  E.  The  divine  transcendence  is  assumed :  God 
speaks  and  His  will  is  performed  (Gen.  1).  Physical  im- 
plications in  the  accounts  of  God's  communication  with  man 
are  ahnost  entirely  lacking.  Even  at  the  great  revelation  of 
Himself  at  Sinai  the  divine  glory  is  veiled  in  cloud  (Ex. 
24  :  15  f. ;  cf.  Ex.  16  :  10 ;  Num.  9  :  15  ff.).  Up  to  the  record 
of  this  revelation  there  is  no  reference  in  P  to  sacrifices  or 
altars.     The  first  sacrifice  recorded  in  P  is  found  in  Lev.  8. 

This  document  like  E  also  prefers  the  di\ine  name  Elohim 
( =  God)  till  Ex.  6  :  2.     After  that  the  name  Jehovah  is  used 

1  Cf.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  87. 

2  Cf.  the  lists  given  in  LOT,  131  flf. ;  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  207  ff., 
cf .  54  ff.,  and  other  Introds.  HDB,  ii.  144 ;  369a.  Driver,  Gen.  vii  ff., 
xxii  ff.  and  other  Comms.  For  complete  tabulation,  cf.  CHB,  Hex.  i. 
208  ff. 


18    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

uniformly.  To  the  Patriarchs  He  was  specially  known 
by  the  name  ^^God  Almighty"  (Ex.  6  :  3  f . ;  cf.  Gen.  17  : 1 : 
35:11;  48:3,  etc.). 

The  theocratic  (or,  according  to  some  scholars,  more 
strictly  the  ''hierocratic")  ^  side  of  Israel's  life  is  emphasized 
by  P  in  preference  to  the  historical  and  political.  This  is 
seen  in  the  prominence  given  to  the  covenant  relation  be- 
tween God  and  man  (e.g.  Gen.  9  :  8  ff . ;  17:1  ff.)  and  in  the 
interest  shown  in  the  origin  of  the  religious  institutions  and 
customs  of  Israel,  as  the  Sabbath  (Gen.  2 : 1-3)  and  circum- 
cision (Gen.  17). 2 

Chronological  data  (e.g.  Gen.  12  :  46 ;  cf.  16  :  16;  17  :  1,  24, 
etc.)  and  other  numerical  details  (e.g.  Gen.  6  :  15  f. ;  7  :  20, 
etc.),  as  well  as  genealogies  (e.g.  Gen.  5;  10:1-7,  10-26; 
25 :  12-18,  etc.),  are  special  features  of  this  narrative. 

Of  the  early  history  up  to  the  revelation  at  Sinai  only  brief 
outhnes  are  preserved  by  P.^  After  that  the  ritual  and 
priesthood  are  the  chief  subjects  dwelt  upon.  Where  fuller 
narratives  are  given  it  is  to  emphasize  matters  of  a  legal  or 
ritualistic  character ;  e.g.  Abraham's  purchase  of  the  cave  of 
Machpelah  (Gen.  23)  and  the  institution  of  the  Passover 
and  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  (Ex.  12:1-20).  Compare 
also  the  laws  for  the  division  of  booty  in  narrative  form 
(Num.  31). 

Probably  P  at  one  time  contained  a  continuous  narrative 
from  Creation  to  the  death  of  Joshua,  though  doubtless  many 
parts  of  it  were  little  more  than  mere  outlines  of  facts.^ 

It  is  the  view  of  many  scholars  now  that  P  is  made  up  of  differ- 
ent strata,  especially  the  legal  portion  of  it  (cf .  p.  266,  v.  a.) ; 
but  to  some  extent  this  also  holds  true  of  the  historical  narratives 
of  this  source,  it  is  believed.  The  later  (secondary)  portions  are 
variously  designated  as  P^  or  P^  Cf.  CorniU's  symbol  =  P"^ 
(his  Introd.  93  f.)-  Cf.  also  in  reference  to  J,  E  and  D,  pp.  20  f. ; 
19 ;  193,  3.  c. 

1  Cf.  Bacon,  Ex.  xli  f.     Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  44. 

2  In  P  "Israel  is  not  so  much  a  nation  as  a  church"  ;  cf.  W.  R.  Smith, 
O.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  411,  320. 

3  This  can  be  seen  by  comparing  Gen.  19 :  29  (P)  with  chap.  18  (J) 
and  the  remainder  of  chap.  19  (J),  which  contain  the  story  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  and  the  escape  of  Lot.  P  gives  the  simple  statement  of 
the  facts ;  J  gives  the  detailed  story.  Cf .  further  the  P  subject-matter 
in  Gen.-Ex.  18,  pp.  30-35. 

"  Cf.,  however,  the  view  in  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  46  f. 


PRIMITIVE    TIMES   TO   CONQUEST    OF   PALESTINE        19 

d.  The  fourth  source  of  the  Hexateuch  is  the  Deuteronomic 
document,  which  is  designated  by  the  letter  D.^ 

While  few  exceptional  words  characterize  this  source,  the 
style  is  distinct  and  can  readily  be  separated  from  P  and  JE. 
A  fondness  for  special  phrases,  frequently  repeated  (which 
can  easily  be  seen  by  following  the  sections  belonging  to  D), 
and  the  oratorical  form  of  the  sentence  are  marked  features. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  characteristic  Deuteronomic 
phrases:  ''other  gods"  (Deut.  6:14;  7:4,  etc.);  "that  your 
(thy)  days  may  be  long"  (4:26,  40,  etc.);  ''which  I  am  com- 
manding thee  this  day"  (4  :  40 ;  6:6,  etc.) ;  ''so  shalt  thou  put 
away  (  =  extirpate)  the  evil"  (13  :  5  ;  17  :  7,  etc.) ;  "that  it  may 
be  well  with  thee"  (4:40;  5:16);  "with  all  thy  (your)  heart 
and  with  all  thy  (your)  soul"  (4  :  29 ;  6  :  5,  etc.),  etc.^ 

An  exalted  spiritual  conception  of  God  (e.g.  Deut.  4  :  12  ff . ; 
cf .  6:4;  10 :  17,  etc.) ;  insistence  upon  obedience  (e.g. 
4  :  26,  40 ;  14  :  24,  etc.)  ;  lofty  motives  for  conduct  inculcated 
(e.g.  love,  as  in  6:5;  10 :  12,  etc.) ;  and  emphasis  upon  the 
central  sanctuary  as  a  means  of  preserving  the  purity  of 
worship  and  the  hohness  of  the  nation  (cf.  Deut.  12)  are 
some  of  the  points  of  teaching  characteristic  of  this  docu- 
ment. 

Of  the  historical  portion  of  the  Hexateuch,  besides  the 
historical  resume  given  in  Deut.  1-4,  portions  of  Joshua 
belong  to  D.  The  D  sections  of  Joshua  (usually  designated 
by  the  symbol  D-  or  R^)  ^  consist  largely  of  religious  comments 
on  historical  events  and  exhortations  to  obedience  (e.g. 
Josh.  1 :  3-9,  12  ff. ;  chap.  23,  etc.).  The  history  under  re- 
view is  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Deuteronomic 
legislation.  The  complete  subjugation  of  the  Canaanites 
by  Joshua  in  obedience  to  the  Mosaic  commands  is  empha- 
sized (Josh.  1 :  3-9  ;  3  :  7,  10  ;  4  :  14,  etc.). 

In  the  first  four  books  of  the  Hexateuch  D  is  found  rarely 
if  at  all. 

1  Cf.  Kent's  alternate  designation  "Late  Prophetic" ;  his  Beginnings, 
etc.,  42. 

2  Cf.  the  lists  given  in  LOT,  99  ff. ;  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  232  £P. 
and  other  Introds.  HDB,  i.  5996  f. ;  ii.  367a.  See  full  lists  in  Driver, 
Deut.  Ixxvii  ff. ;   CHB,  Hex.  i.  200  £f.     See  also  McNeile,  Deut.  99  fif. 

3  The  symbol  D^  (or  R^)  is  given  to  such  sections  because  they  were 
written  later  than  the  original  Deut.  Code  (D  =  Deut.  5-26  +  28),  the 
standpoint  and  phraseology  of  which  characterize  them. 


20        AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

Some  of  the  sections  of  the  earHer  books  of  the  Hexateuch 
which  have  been  supposed  by  different  authorities  to  have  the 
characteristics  of  D,  at  least  in  measure,  are :  Gen.  15 :  18-21 ; 
18:19  (cf.  Deut.  4:10;  6:7;  11:19,  etc.);  Gen.  26:5;  Ex. 
3:15;  12  :  25-27  (or  21-27) ;  13:3-16;  15  :  256  f . ;  19:36-5(6); 
20  :  20-22 ;  22  :  216-22,  24,  256,  31 ;  23  :  23-25a,  27,  316-33  (cf. 
Deut.  7) ;  34 :  106-13,  15,  23  f. ;  Num.  21 :  33-35  (cf.  Deut. 
3 : 1-3)  and  others.  Cf .  also  the  Deuteronomic  phrases  in  the 
expansions  of  the  Decalogue  Ex.  20,  e.g.  ''Jehovah  thy  God'^ 
(vss.  2,  7,  10,  12) ;  ''love  me  and  keep,  etc."  (vs.  6) ;  and  espe- 
cially, "that  thy  days  may  be  long,  etc."  (vs.  12). ^ 

D's  contribution  to  the  historical  part  of  the  Hexateuch  is 
the  least  in  extent  of  all  the  sources.^ 


2.  The   Dates   of  the   Different   Sources   of  the 

Hexateuch 

J  and  E  are  considered  the  oldest  sources  of  the  Hexateuch, 
the  priority  being  generally  attributed  to  J. 

Their  relative  date  is  based,  (a)  on  J's  anthropomorphic  concep- 
tions which  point  to  an  earlier  stage  of  revelation  than  that  of 
E  (see  pp.  14  f.) ;  (6)  on  the  ethical  ideas  of  E  which  show  an  ad- 
vance upon  those  of  J  ;  e.g.  explanatory  statements  in  connection 
with  questionable  actions  of  the  Patriarchs  [cf .  Gen.  20  :  3,  6,  12 ; 
21 :  11  ff. ;  31 :  6  ff.,  24,  29,  42  ( =  all  E)  with  respectively  Gen. 
12  :  12  ff.,  18  f. ;  16  :  5  ff. ;  30  :  29-43  (  =  all  J)] ;  (c)  E's  avoid- 
ance of  the  name  Jehovah  in  Genesis  (cf.  Ex.  3  :  14  f.),  and  (d)  the 
greater  prominence  given  to  the  prophetic  gift  in  E  (cf.  p.  15), 
which  indicate  a  later  stage  of  religious  progress  than  J.  This  is 
the  view  of  most  scholars.  Only  a  few  at  present  defend  the 
priority  of  E. 

The  approximate  dates  assigned  to  J  and  E  by  different 
scholars  range  from  900  to  750  B.C. 

A  further  consideration  bearing  on  the  relative  order  of  J  and 
E  needs  to  be  noted.  According  to  the  view  of  most  scholars  J 
and  E  do  not  stand  for  individual  writers,  but  represent  a  literary 
and  religious  movement,  extending  over  a  considerable  period  of 
time.     Thus  many  critics   distinguish  different  strata  in  these 

1  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  94.  HDB,  ii.  3676  (Woods).  Cornill,  Introd. 
140  ff.     CHB,  Hex.  i.  175,  etc. 

2  For  the  discussion  of  the  Deut.  Code  as  a  whole,  see  pp.  123  ff. 


PRIMITIVE   TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       21 

sources  (earlier  and  later),  designated  by  J^  and  J-  (or  J  and  J^), 
and  E^  and  E^  (or  E  and  E^).  On  account  of  the  influence  of  the 
8th  century  prophets,  which  it  is  claimed  can  be  traced  in  the 
more  important  of  these  additions,  they  are  dated  after  the  middle 
of  that  century :  e.g.  P  (J«)  c.  750  (or  700)-650  b.c.  ;  and  E^  (E^) 
c.  700-650  B.C.  From  this  point  of  view,  some  of  the  P  (J^) 
portions  are  later  than  the  main  source  E.  The  comment  of 
Professor  McFadyen  summarizes  excellently  the  situation : 
''the  moment  it  is  recognized  that  a  long  period  elapsed  before 
either  document  reached  its  present  form,  the  question  of  priority 
becomes  relatively  unimportant."  ^ 

The  period  to  which  J  and  E  are  assigned  is  determined 
partly  (a)  by  historical  references  in  Amos  and  Hosea  to 
events  recorded  in  them,  which  accordingly  places  them 
earlier  than  these  prophecies. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  historical  allusions  :  Am.  1 :  11,  cf. 
Gen,  27  :  40 ;  2  :  9  f.,  9  :  7,  cf.  Num.  13  :  27  ff. ;  4:11,  cf.  Gen.  19  : 
24  f . ;  Hos.  9  :  10,  cf .  Num.  25  :  3  ;  Hos.  12  :  4  f .,  cf .  Gen.  25  :  26a, 
32  :  25  ff. ;  Hos.  12  :  13,  cf.  Gen.  31 :  41,  27  :  43,  29  :  18  f.  Sim- 
ilar phraseology  may  also  be  noticed,  as  in  Hos.  1 :  10,  cf.  Gen. 
22:  17,  32:  12;  and  Hos.  11 :  1  (''my  son"),  cf.  Ex.  4:22;  Hos. 
2:17,  cf.  Ex.  23:13;  Hos.  12:14,  cf.  Ex.  33:11,  Num.  12:8, 
Josh.  14  :  6.  A  reference  to  the  law  of  the  debtor  in  Ex.  22  :  26  f. 
seems  to  be  made  in  Am.  2 : 8.  The  existence  of  written  laws 
apparently  is  implied  in  Hos.  8  :  12. 

While  it  is  possible  that  the  historical  allusions  cited  in  Amos  and 
Hosea  may  have  been  derived  from  oral  tradition,  "by  far  the 
simplest  explanation  of  them  is  that  which  takes  them  to  be 
quotations  from  writings  already  in  existence."  ^  The  rehgious 
presuppositions  of  these  prophets  also  "point  to  a  well-established 
background  of  usage  and  phraseology  which  is  best  explained 
on  the  supposition  of  recorded  narrative  familiar  to  the  people 
whom  they  addressed."  ^ 

The  priority  of  J  and  E  to  Amos  and  Hosea  is  also  partly 
determined  (6)  by  the  fact  that  the  religious  conceptions  of 
these  documents  are  less  advanced  than  in  these  earliest  of 
the  written  prophecies.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prophetic 
tone,  though  not  so  definitely  marked  as  in  Amos  and  Hosea, 

1  Cf.  McFadyen,  Introd.  74.     Note  the  view  in  Skinner,  Gen.  li  f. 

2  Battel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  82 ;  but  cf .  the  more  cautious  conclusion  in 
Ryle,  Gen.  xxiv  f. ;   Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  35  f. 

3  CHB,  Hex.  i.  108.     Cf.  W.  R.  Harper,  Amos,  etc.,  bcxi,  Ixxviii  f.,  etc. 


22    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

in  its  highest  expression  resembles  those  prophets.  E  for 
example  ^^in  many  points  is  on  a  level  with"  these  great 
prophetic  teachers.^  Hence  while  J  and  E  were  probably 
completed  before  750  B.C.  (approximately  the  date  of  Amos), 
the  length  of  time  previous  to  this  date  may  not  have  been 
very  great.  The  suggestion  has  much  to  commend  it  that 
the  writing  of  J  and  E  was  the  outcome  of  the  great  religious 
awakening  under  Elijah  and  Elisha,  c.  850  ff.  b.c.^ 

As  bearing  on  the  date  of  these  sources,  cf,  also  the  great  in- 
terest of  the  people  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  in  the  days  of  Amos- 
Hosea  in  their  sacred  places,  e.g.  Bethel,  Gilgal  and  Beersheba 
(see  references  at  end  of  paragraph),  —  shrines  in  which  a  like 
interest  is  manifested  in  JE.  This  implies  an  approximate  near- 
ness of  date.  On  the  other  hand,  that  JE  is  earlier  than  these 
prophets  is  shown  by  the  latter's  strong  condemnation  of  the 
worship  as  practiced  there.  Cf .  Am.  3  :  14  ;  4:4;  5:5;  8  :  14 ; 
Hos.  4:15;  9:15;  12:11  with  Gen.  12:8;  21:33;  22:19; 
26  :  23  ff.,  33  ;   28  :  10  ff .,  19 ;   Josh.  4  :  19  f . ;   5:9,  etc. 

That  J  and  E  in  their  present  form  are  later  than  the  age  of 
Moses  is  seen  (a)  by  the  fact  that  they  carry  the  history  of  Israel 
down  into  the  days  of  Joshua  (cf .  book  of  Josh.,  pp.  41  ff.)  and  pos- 
sibly later  (cf.  pp.  46  f.,  48,  57  f.) ;  also  (5)  in  the  presupposition 
that  Israel  is  in  possession  of  Canaan  {e.g.  Gen.  12:6;  13:7). 
Note  as  well  (c)  the  expression  '4n  Israel"  (Gen.  34:  7,  cf .  Judg. 
20:  6,  10  and  2  Sam.  13:  12);  also  'Hhe  land  of  the  Hebrews" 
(Gen.  40 :  15) ;  and  notice  the  historical  setting  of  Num.  32 :  41, 
cf .  Judg.  10  :  4.3 

Most  scholars  do  not  attempt  to  date  J  and  E  more  definitely 
than  within  the  limits  of  fifty  or  a  hundred  years.  Thus  Car- 
penter and  Harford-Battersby's  dates  are :  J  =  850-750  B.C. ; 
E  =  800-750  B.C.  Some,  however,  give  more  definite  dates;  e.g. 
Kittel  for  J  =  830-800  b.c.  ;  E  =  a  few  decades  earher.  Accord- 
ing to  Kent  J  =  c.  825  b.c.  and  E  =  c.  750  b.c  Cornill  =  J, 
c.  850  B.C. ;  E,  c.  750  b.c     Gray  =  J,  c.  900  b.c  ;  E,  c.  750  b.c* 

1  Cf.  W.  R.  Harper,  Amos,  etc.,  Lxxxiv. 

2  Cf.  Bacon,  Gen.,  etc.,  60.  Bacon,  Ex.  xxxii.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
i   88  f 

3  Cf.  further,  LOT,  124  f.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  106  f.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T. 
Jew.  Chm'ch  2,  324  ff.  See  also  Ryle,  Gen.  xiv  ff.  (including  also  refs.  to 
P). 

4  Cf.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  107  f.,  118  f.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  86.  Kent, 
Beginnings,  etc.,  36.  Cornill,  Introd.  79  f.,  90  f.  Gray,  Introd.  44,  49. 
See  also  lists  in  LOT,  123.     Harper,  Amos,  etc.,  Lxxi,  n.* ;  Ixxix,  n.f. 


PRIMITIVE    TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       23 

The  next  historical  source  in  point  of  time  is  the  Deutero- 
nomic.  This  did  not  appear  till  a  date  subsequent  to  the 
discovery  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code  (embodied  in  our  pres- 
ent book  of  Deuteronomy)  in  621  B.C.,  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Josiah's  reign  (cf.  2  Ki.  22:  3  ff.).^  These  Deuteronomic 
(historical)  portions  of  the  Hexateuch  are  usually  assigned, 
together  with  the  Deuteronomic  revision  of  Judges-Kings, 
to  the  Exile.2     Cf.  p.  193,  ii.  3.  c. 

The  Exile  was  a  fitting  time  for  review  and  revision  of  past 
history  on  the  part  of  Israel's  religious  teachers.  The  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  furnished  the  occasion  for  thoughtful  interpretation 
of  that  past ;  and  the  Exile  gave  the  leisure  necessary.  Kent  as- 
signs c.  550  B.C.  as  an  approximate  date  for  this  work  of  revision.^ 

The  latest  of  the  sources  was  P.  The  historical  material 
comprised  in  it,  it  is  conunonly  agreed,  had  its  origin  in 
connection  with  the  literary  and  religious  movement  in  the 
priestly  circles  by  which  the  Priestly  legal  code  assumed 
practically  its  present  form,  i.e,  between  the  time  of  Ezekiel, 
c.  570  B.C.,  and  the  work  of  Ezra,  458  b.c.^  It  may  therefore 
be  dated  tentatively  c.  500  B.C. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Exile  gave  the  same  literary  impulse 
and  opportunity  to  priestly  writers  as  to  prophetic  (i.e.  Deuter- 
onomic, cf .  above) ;  and  as  there  were  historical  reviews  from  the 
latter  standpoint,  so  also  w^ere  there  from  the  former. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  Priestly  historical  narratives  have 
their  basis  in  the  JE  material,  especially  in  J.  Note  the  greater 
prominence  given  in  E  than  in  J  to  the  prophetic  gift  and  office 
(see  p.  15).^ 

3.  The  Process  of  Combining  the  Different  Sources 

The  first  step  in  the  process  of  combination  doubtless  was 
the  uniting  of  the  J  and  E  narratives  and  codes.     This  was 

1  Cf.  further  on  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  pp.  123  ff. 

2  Cf.  the  statement  that  this  Deut.  contribution  (  =  R^)  should  strictly 
be  "understood  to  refer  less  to  an  individual  writer  than  to  a  stage  of 
redactional  activity."     Cornill,  Introd.  142. 

3  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  42.     Cornill,  Introd.  141  f.,  540. 

4  Ezra's  mission,  according  to  a  number  of  scholars,  is  placed  as  late  as 
397  B.C.  If  this  date  is  taken,  then  the  Priestly  historical  review  of  early 
times  belongs  c.  450-400  b.c.  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  47.  For  dis- 
cussion of  date  of  P,  cf.  pp.  241  ff.,  247  f. 

'  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  1671  (Moore).     Gordon,  Early  Trad.  Gen.  29,  etc. 


24        AN   INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

effected  by  using  parts  of  each  source  to  form  a  progressive 
and  united  account.  J  apparently  was  taken  as  the  basis, 
perhaps  because  it  was  more  complete. 

In  some  places  one  document  was  used  entirely  [e.g, 
J  =  Gen.  24  and  38 ;  E  =  Gen.  20 ;  21 : 6-31  and  40  : 1-41 ; 
also  41 :  29-42  :  37  (largely)],  either  from  preference  for  the 
accounts  adopted,  or  because  they  were  lacking  in  the  other 
source. 

More  frequently,  however,  portions  were  selected  from  the 
parallel  narratives  to  form  a  resultant  composite  story  {e.g. 
Gen.  28;  29). 

The  combination  of  J  and  E  may  represent  the  work  of 
different  persons,  imbued  with  the  same  spirit,  working  from 
a  similar  standpoint,  and  extending  over  a  considerable 
period  of  time.  Possibly  some  additions  embodying  loftier 
spiritual  conceptions  may  have  been  interwoven  during  this 
stage  of  compilation.  The  date  of  the  completion  of  the 
union  of  J  and  E  =  JE  was  sometime  before  the  discovery  of 
the  Deuteronomic  Code  in  621  B.C.,  and  may  be  assigned 
approximately  to  650  b.c.  The  compiler  is  generally  des- 
ignated by  the  symbol  R"^^.^ 

This  conclusion  as  to  the  date  of  union  of  JE  is  based  on  refer- 
ences in  Deuteronomy  which  apparently  presuppose  their  combi- 
nation (e.g.  Deut.  26  :  5,  cf.  Gen.  46  :  3,  Num.  20  :  15,  Gen.  47  :  4, 
Ex.  1 :  9  (E  and  J).  Deut.  26  :  6,  cf.  Num.  20 :  15,  Ex.  1 :  12,  14 
(E  and  J).  Deut.  26  :  7,  cf.  Num.  20  :  16,  Ex.  3  :  7,  9,  Gen.  41 :  51 
(E  and  J).  Also  Deut.  11:6,  cf.  Num.  16:16,  12,  32a,  Gen. 
7:4,  23,  Ex.  11:8  (J  and  E). 

While  this  is  the  view  of  the  majority  of  O.  Test,  scholars,  some 
hold  the  opinion  that  J  and  E  were  not  combined  till  a  date  sub- 
sequent to  621  B.c.^ 

The  next  step  in  the  compilation  of  the  Hexateuch  was  the 
combination  of  JE  and  D  =  JED.  This  consisted  in  the 
incorporation  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  together  with 
comments  on  and  interpretations  of  historical  events  from  the 

*  This  editor,  it  is  believed,  made  J  the  basis  of  the  compilation  and 
hence  is  termed  by  Wellhausen  a  "Jehovist."  It  may  be  added  that 
"the  work  of  RJ^  and  J^,  where  the  latter  stands  for  expansions  of  J,  may 
be  almost  indistinguishable."  Cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  137.  Gray,  Introd. 
48  f. 

2  Cf.  further  HDB,  ii.  3736  (Woods).      CHB,  Hex.  i.  173  f.,  etc. 


PRIMITIVE    TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       25 

standpoint  of  this  Code,  —  such  being  found  in  Joshua  and 
in  the  historical  review  Deut.  1-4,  as  previously  stated.^ 

This  stage  in  the  process  of  compilation  belongs  to  the 
Exile,  according  to  the  conclusion  of  practically  all  Old 
Testament  scholars.     The  compiler  is  designated   as  R°^. 

The  final  stage  of  combination  is  represented  by  the  union 
of  JED  with  P  =  JEDP,  i.e.  the  insertion  in  JED  of  the 
Priestly  legal  codes,  found  especially  in  Leviticus  and  Num- 
bers, together  with  the  Priestly  historical  material,  which  in 
general  was  of  a  brief  character,  as  has  already  been  noticed.^ 

It  is  supposed  by  some  scholars  that  the  uniting  of  the  JED 
and  P  elements  in  Joshua  was  the  work  of  a  different  compiler 
from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Hexateuch,  and  that  possibly  the  latest 
hand  in  some  portions  at  least  is  that  of  D-  (R^)."^ 

Probably  few,  if  any,  changes  were  made  in  the  JED  mate- 
rial in  this  process  of  unification.  The  genealogies  and  the 
chronological  data  of  P  served  as  a  framework  for  the  united 
documents. 

The  historical  sketch  of  P  is  believed  by  many  scholars  to  have 
been  incorporated  in  its  entirety,  or  at  least  largely,  in  this  stage 
of  combination.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  Prophetic  stories 
seem  to  have  been  substituted  {e.g.  there  is  no  account  preserved 
in  the  P  narrative  of  the  birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob).  In  other 
places  the  Prophetic  story  may  have  been  omitted  (cf.  the  possi- 
bility of  2 :  46-9  =  J  being  a  fragment  of  a  longer  account  of 
Creation).^ 

The  use  of  P  as  a  framework  is  well  illustrated  in  Genesis,  the 
structure  of  which  is  marked  by  the  ten  genealogical  divisions 
indicated  by  the  recurring  expression:  ''These  are  the  genera- 
tions of"  (2:4a;  5:1;  6:9;  10:1;  11:10;  11:27;  25:12; 
25:19;   36:1,  cf.  vs.  9;   37:2). 

1  See  p.  19. 

2  This  movement  included  also  a  revision  of  Judges-Kings  (cf .  state- 
ment, p.  23).  The  influence  of  the  Deut.  spirit  continued  after  the 
Exile,  as  is  seen  in  the  literary  form  of  the  confession  in  Neh.  9. 

3  See  p.  18.  Note  Ryle's  summary  of  the  different  methods  em- 
ployed in  the  process  of  compilation:  "Six,  at  least,  may  be  recog- 
nized: i.e.  (1)  Verbatim  extracts,  (2)  Abridgment  and  omission,  (3)  Du- 
plication of  narratives,  (4)  Conflation  and  combination,  (5)  Harmonizing, 
(6)  Glosses."     Ryle,  Gen.  xxx. 

*  See  Bennett,  Introd.  56  f.,  79  ;  his  Josh.  44  f.  HDB,  ii.  783  f.  (G.  A. 
Smith).     CHB,  Hex.  i.  178;   ii.  315  ff. 

6  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  47.     CHB,  Hex.  i.  176  f. 


26    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

This  final  stage  of  compilation,  or  the  compiler,  is  desig- 
nated by  R^.  The  date  of  the  completion  of  the  Hexateuch 
marked  by  this  union  is  commonly  put  after  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  Priestly  Law  by  Ezra  in  444  B.C.,  and  is  assigned 
by  many  to  the  period  444-400  b.c.^ 

Even  after  this  date  certain  additions  may  have  been  made  to 
the  legal  part  of  P  (cf.  p.  248)  and  also  possibly  to  the  narrative 
portion,  e.g.  Gen.  14  is  considered  by  a  number  of  scholars  a  story 
of  such  late  origin  (cf.  p.  31,  i.  d.).'^^ 

4.  The  Chronological  Arrangement  of  the  Narrative 
Material  of  the  Hexateuch  as  Related  to  its 
Sources 

The  study  of  the  sources  of  the  Hexateuch  has  its  chief 
bearing  upon  the  different  legal  codes  embodied  in  them,  and 

1  For  an  excellent,  concise  summary  of  this  process  of  compilation  cf. 
Gray,  Introd.  49  f. 

2  For  recent  attempts  to  discredit  the  critical  analysis  of  the  Hexateuch 
by  advancing  the  claim  that  the  LXX  text  does  not  substantiate  the 
variations  in  the  use  of  the  divine  names,  which  characterize  the  differ- 
ent sources  (J,  E,  P),  cf.  Wiener,  Essays  in  Pent.  Crit. ;  also  Dahse, 
Textkritische  Materialien  zur  Hexateuchfrage.  For  discussion  and 
answer  to  this  contention  see  Ryle,  Gen.  Ivi  ff.  LOT  (latest  ed.),  pp. 
XX vi  ff.  (in  Addenda).  Skinner,  Gen.  xxxv  ff. ;  and  especially  the  mas- 
terly treatment  in  Skinner,  Divine  Names,  etc.  ( =  review  espec.  of 
Dahse's  arguments).  Cf.  also  reviews  of  Wiener's  book  in  Biblical 
World,  Aug.  1910  (pp.  137  ff.) ;  and  of  Skinner's  Divine  Names,  etc.,  in 
American  Journal  of  Theol.  July,  1915  (pp.  453  ff.),  both  reviews  by  the 
present  writer. 

3  Cf.  further  on  the  sources,  their  dates  and  other  matters  connected 
with  the  introduction  of  the  Hexateuch  LOT,  116  ff.,  cf.  1  ff.  Bennett, 
Introd.  19  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT  (29  ff.),  35  ff.,  43  ff.,  61  ff.,  94,  106  ff., 
226  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  3  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  27  ff.  Gray,  Introd. 
13  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  29  ff.  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  HDB,  i.  289  f. 
(Stewart) ;  ii.  363  ff.  (Woods) ;  also  arts,  on  different  books  of  the  Hex. 
in  HDB  ( =  Gen.  by  Ryle,  ii.  143  ff. ;  Ex.  and  Num.  by  Harford-Bat- 
tersby,  i.  806  ff.,  iii.  567  ff. ;  Deut.  by  Ryle,  i.  596  ff. :  Josh,  by  G.  A. 
Smith,  ii.  779  ff.).  EBi,  ii.  2045  ff.  (Cheyne  and  Wellhausen) ;  2075  ff. 
(Moore) ;  also  arts,  on  different  books  of  the  Hex.  in  EBi  ( =  Gen.  ii. 
1669  ff. ;  Ex.  ii.  1440  ff. ;  Num.  iii.  3439  ff. ;  Deut.  i.  1079  ff. ;  Josh.  ii. 
2600  ff.,  —  all  by  Moore).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  different  books  of 
the  Hex.  e.g.  Int.  Crit.  ( =  Gen,  by  Skinner ;  Num.  by  Gray ;  Deut.  by 
Driver) ;  West.  C.  ( =  Gen.  by  Driver ;  Ex.  by  McNeile) ;  Camb.  B. 
(  =  Gen.  by  Ryle ;  Ex.  by  Driver ;  Num.  by  McNeile) ;  Cen.  B.  (  =  Gen. 
and  Ex.  by  Bennett ;  Lev.-Num,  by  Kennedy ;  Deut.-Josh.  by  Robinson). 
Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  11  ff.,  62  ff.,  69  ff.,  83  ff.,  88  ff.  Kent,  Beginnings, 
etc.,  3  ff.,  31  ff.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  1  ff. ;  ii.  303  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii. 
pp.  59  ff.,  62  ff.  (§§920-934),  cf.  35  ff.,  39  f.  (§§885  ff.,  891  f.).     W.  R. 


'      PRIMITIVE    TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       27 

in  an  Introduction  such  as  this,  in  which  the  chronological 
arrangement  of  the  Biblical  material  is  a  special  feature,  the 
dates  of  the  respective  documents  to  which  the  Codes  belong 
must  be  carefully  determined.  For  these  different  legal 
codes  not  only  accentuate  the  religious  standpoints  of  the 
sources  to  which  they  belong,  but  they  also  naturally  bear, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  impress  of  the  periods  in  which 
they  assumed  their  final  form. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  historical  and  biographical  material 
of  the  Hexateuch,  in  its  present  form,  was  arranged  by  the 
Biblical  compilers  to  make  a  unified  account  wdth  chronologi- 
cal sequence.  Hence  in  the  outline  of  Biblical  material 
given  in  the  periods  covered  by  the  Hexateuch  the  Biblical 
order  will  be  followed  in  this  volume  irrespective  of  the  dates 
of  the  different  sources. 

Since,  however,  in  Old  Testament  history  the  emphasis  is 
so  largely  on  moral  and  religious  interpretations  of  events, 
from  the  standpoints  of  different  schools  of  thought,  repre- 
senting various  dates,  any  chronological  arrangement  of  the 
historical  material  of  the  Hexateuch  must  take  that  fact  into 
consideration.  Hence  in  connection  with  each  of  the  subdi- 
visions of  the  historical  matter  covered  by  the  Hexateuch  the 
sources  are  given  (see  pp.  30-44).  Wliere  recent  scholars 
differ  in  their  analyses  of  particular  chapters  or  sections, 
that  which  seems  the  best  established  is  given. 

In  assigning  the  different  sources  of  the  Hexateuch  to  their 
respective  dates  the  reader  is  to  be  cautioned  against  infer- 
ring that  all  the  subject-matter  contained  in  them  had  its 
origin  so  late  in  Israel's  history.  Much  undoubtedly  goes 
back  to  ancient  times,  being  transmitted  orally,  or  possibly 
to  some  extent  in  writing. 

In  Oriental  countries  an  instinctive  conservatism  prevails  as 
seen  in  fixedness  of  customs  and  forms,  which  change  but  little 
from  generation  to  generation.  There  is,  therefore,  a  probability 
in  favor  of  early  narratives  being  handed  do^^m  orally  (by  the 
professional  story  tellers),  through  the  centuries  without  essential 

Smith,  0.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  chaps,  xi-xiii.  W.  R.  Harper,  Amos,  etc. 
(Int.  Crit.),  Iviii  fif.,  Ixix  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  11  ff.,  35  ff.,  52  ff., 
210,  219,  400  ff.  McFadyen,  Hists.  5  ff.,  239  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc., 
22  ff.,  30  f.,  36  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  3  ff.  Bacon,  Gen.,  etc.,  1  ff.  Bacon, 
Ex.  V  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  135  f.,  147,  257  ff.  Fowler,  Hist.  Lit., 
etc.  70  flf.,  99  ff.,  255  (cf.  175  ff.),  293  ff. 


28        AN  INTRODUCTION  TO   THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

variations.  The  changes  that  occurred  in  the  stories  in  the  course 
of  transmission  would  be  occasioned  to  a  considerable  extent 
(at  least  after  the  period  of  writing  began)  by  (a)  differences  of 
location  {e.g.  the  north  and  the  south;  see  as  illustration  in  the 
J  and  E  material  of  Gen.  37  the  place  given  to  Judah  and  Reuben 
respectively) ;  or  (6)  growing  ethical  and  religious  standards 
[e.g.  differing  standpoints  of  E  and  J  (p.  20,  section  2)]. 

Note  that  Professor  Kent  dates  the  origin  of  most  of  the 
stories  of  the  first  eight  books  of  the  Old  Testament  c.  1250- 
1050  B.C.     Kautzsch  holds  substantially  the  same  view.^ 

This  same  fact  applies  to  the  legal  portions  as  well  as  to 
the  historical  sections. 

In  reference  to  the  history  recorded  compare  the  words  of  Kittel 
on  E  and  J :  ''In  many  cases  it  is  demonstrable  that  E  worked 
in  accordance  with  sources  that  were  ancient  and,  in  part,  very 
ancient.  And  further,  where  this  cannot  now  be  discerned,  we 
may  accept  his  descriptions  as  resting  on  older  material,  oral  or 
written,  except  where  there  are  conclusive  reasons  of  a  special 
kind  to  the  contrary.  ...  It  is  also  intrinsically  likely  that 
...  J  had  before  him,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the  sources  from  which 
E  drew.  ...  In  many  instances  .  .  .  there  are  clear  indications 
that  besides  the  stores  of  information  accessible  to  E,  J  knew  in- 
dependently of  other  ancient  and  precious  ones  and  embodied 
them  in  his  work."  ^ 

For  reference  in  pre-exilic  prophetical  writings  to  the  existence 
of  written  laws,  cf.  Hos.  8: 12,  also  4:6  (see  p.  21).  "It  is  no 
doubt  true  that  much  of  the  sacrificial  terminology  may  be  of 
high  antiquity.  The  instinct  of  established  priesthoods  is  always 
in  favor  of  perpetuating  the  ancient  language  endeared  by  tradi- 

1  "It  is  not  possible  to  discriminate  accurately  between  the  modifica- 
tions which  a  narrative  would  undergo  through  constant  repetition,  and 
changes  deUberately  made  by  responsible  persons.  On  the  whole,  the 
balance  of  presumption  seems  to  us  to  incHne  towards  the  hypothesis  of 
professional  oversight  of  some  sort,  exercised  from  a  very  early  time.  .  .  . 
As  to  the  use  of  writing,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  it  came  in  first  of 
all  as  an  aid  to  the  memory  of  the  narrator,  and  that  as  a  knowledge  of 
literature  extended  the  practice  of  oral  recitation  gradually  died  out, 
and  left  the  written  record  in  sole  possession  of  the  field.  In  this  way  we 
may  imagine  that  books  would  be  formed,  which  would  be  handed  down 
from  father  to  son,  annotated,  expanded,  revised  and  copied;  and  so 
collections  resembling  our  oldest  pentateuchal  documents  might  come 
into  existence."  Skinner,  Gen.  xxx.  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  17. 
Kautzsch,  LOT,  6  and  his  article  "Relig.  Isr."  in  HDB,  extra  vol.  6346  f. 
See  statement  also  by  Gunkel  in  his  Legends  of  Gen.  98  f . 

2  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  95  f .  (Note  that  this  author  considers  E  earlier 
than  J.)     Kittel,  Scient.  Study  0.  T.  157  ff. 


PRIMITIVE    TIMES   TO   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE       29 

tional  usage.  It  may  be  assumed,  therefore,  that  the  phraseology 
of  P  was  gradually  formed  on  the  basis  of  elements  long  current 
in  the  sacerdotal  communities."  ^ 

5.   The  Poems  of  the  Hexateuch 

There  is  general  agreement  among  Old  Testament  scholars 
at  present,  that  the  different  poems  and  poetical  fragments 
of  the  Hexateuch  were  incorporated  by  J  and  E  from  other 
som-ces  ;  cf.  Num.  21 :  14  f. ;  Josh.  10  :  12  f.  These  poems 
are  supposed  to  represent  the  earUest  portion  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch to  assume  its  final  form. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  scholars  that  the  more  important  of 
the  early  stories  had  their  first  literary  expression  in  poetry,  and 
that  their  prose  form  represents  a  subsequent  stage  of  develop- 
ment. That  such  a  relationship  existed  in  measure  at  later  times 
is  shown  by  comparing  Judg.  4  (prose)  with  chap.  5  (poetry)  .^ 

In  reference  to  the  poems  of  the  Hexateuch  it  may  be  noted 
that  (a)  some  of  them  probably  belong  to  dates  soon  after 
the  events  celebrated  by  them ;  (6)  others  in  their  present 
form  have  doubtless  passed  through  different  stages  of 
expansion  and  modification  from  their  original  composition ; 
while  (c)  still  others  seem  more  likely  to  have  been  composed 
at  later  dates  to  describe  or  celebrate  what  had  transpired 
in  earher  times.^ 

1  CHB,  Hex.  i.  133,  cf .  19.  See  also  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  \ 
303,  332,  344  f.,  382  f.  For  the  view  that  the  Priestly  laws  are  of  early 
origin,  cf.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  102,  107  fP.,  132. 

2  See  further  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  15  f.  Ryle,  Gen.  xxxiv  f.  Cf. 
also  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  13  f. 

2  For  the  sources  of  these  different  poems  and  their  relation  to  J  and 
E,  cf.  the  discussion  in  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  90  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM, 
iii.  pp.  38  ff.  (§§  889  f.,  894  ff.).  Kautzsch,  LOT,  1  ff.  HDB,  ii.  3736 
(Woods) ;  EBi,  ii.  2075  (Moore).  CHB,  Hex.  i.  chap,  xiv  (pp.  157  ff.). 
Ryle,  Gen.  xxxv.  Cornill,  Introd.  117  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Early  Poet. 
Isr.,  43  ff.     Schmidt,  Poets,  281  ff.     Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  11  ff.,  etc. 


I-IV.  B.  The  Chronological  Outline  of  the  Biblical  Ma- 
terial ( =  the  Hexateuch,  largely),  Relating  to  the 
Periods  from  the  Primitive  Times  to  the  Conquest  of 
Palestine. 

I.   B.   Primitive  Times 

i.   Narratives  of  this  period.     Genesis  1-11.^ 
ii.    Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  These  chapters  are  derived  largely  from  the  Prophetic  narra- 
tive, J.     See  further  below  under  h  and  c. 

b.  The  folloTtvdng  are  the  more  important  sections  in  Gen.  1-11, 
which  are  assigned  by  a  number  of  recent  scholars  to  a  later 
stratum  of  J  (  =  J^  or  P ;  cf.  pp.  20  f .) ;  2  :  10-14  (15).  4  :  l-16a, 
and  the  J  version  of  the  Flood  [=6:5-8;  7 :  1-5,  7-10,  12,  166, 
176,  22  f.  8  :  26-3a  C^and  the  rain  .  .  .  continually"),  6-12,  136 
(^^and  Noah,"  etc.),  20-22].  Cf.  Driver,  Gen.  74.  CHB,  Hex.  ii. 
pp.  3  f.,  5  ff.,  9  ff. ;  i.  p.  108,  etc. 

c.  P  in  chaps.  1-11  =  1 :  1-2  :  4a ;  5  :  1-28,  30-32 ;  version  of 
the  Flood  [  =  6  :  9-22 ;  7  :  6,  11,  13-16a,  17a,  18-21,  24  ;  8  :  l-2a, 
36-5,  13a,  14-19;  9:1-17];  9  :  28  f . ;  10:1-7,  20,  22  f.,  31  f . ; 
11:10-27,  31  f. 

d.  The  Song  of  Lamech,  Gen.  4 :  23  f.,  which  has  been  incor- 
porated by  the  Prophetic  writer  J,  is  considered  by  a  number  of 
scholars  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  existing  Hebrew  poems.  Cf. 
McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  38  f.  (§  889).  Kautzsch,  LOT,  3.  Kent, 
Songs,  etc.,  51,  etc. 

e.  The  Blessing  of  Noah,  Gen.  9 :  25-27,  is  assigned  by  some 
scholars  to  a  very  early  date,  e.g.  c.  1400  B.C.,  cf.  Gordon,  Poets, 
etc.,  37  f.     See  discussion  G.  A.  Smith,  Early  Poet.  Isr.  46  ff. 

II.   B.   Patriarchal  Period.     Genesis  12-50 

A.     Narratives  Relating  to  Abraham.     12  :  1-25  :  18 

i.    Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  These  chapters  are  derived  largely  from  J.  See  further 
under  6,  c  and  d,  below. 

]  For  introductory  notes  on  the  different  sources  of  the  narrative  ma- 
terial found  in  the  Hexateuch  ( =  periods  of  Primitive  Times  to  Conquest 

30 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   PATRIARCHAL  PERIOD        31 

h.  E  is  found  especially  in  chaps.  20  and  21-22  (mostly) ; 
possibly  also  a  few  verses  in  chap.  15  (e.g.  1  f.,  5). 

c.  F  =  12:46-5;  13:6  (or  6a),  ll6-12a  C'and  they  .  .  . 
Plain");  16:1a  (to  ''children"),  3,  15  f . ;  chap.  17;  19:29; 
21:16  (''and  Jehovah,"  etc.),  26-5  (from  "at  the  set,"  etc.); 
chap.  23;  25:7-lla,  12-17. 

d.  The  origin  of  chap.  14  is  uncertain.  It  has  but  few  charac- 
teristics in  common  with  the  other  sources,  and  is  generally  sup- 
posed not  to  have  been  derived  from  them.  According  to  Driver 
(Gen.  xvi)  the  date  of  the  present  form  of  the  story  is  not  earlier 
than  the  Exile.  Many  other  scholars  date  it  even  later,  classify- 
ing it  "with  P  and  the  midrashic  elements  in  Chronicles,  rather 
than  wdth  the  older  Israelite  historians"  (Moore,  EBi,  ii.  1677).^ 
See  also  ii.  below.  Cf.  Comms.  in  loc.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  pp.  157  ff., 
167  f.,  etc. 

ii.   Chronological  notes. 

Two  problems  are  involved  in  the  relation  of  Gen.  14  to  the 
chronology  of  the  Patriarchal  period.  One  is  in  reference  to  the 
identification  of  some  at  least  of  the  kings  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter (vs.  1)  ^vith  those  whose  names  occur  in  the  Babylonian  records. 
Of  these  the  most  important  is  that  of  Amraphel,  who  is  quite 
generally  identified  wdth  Hammurabi  of  Babylonia.  The  date 
of  this  monarch  has  usually  been  placed  somewhere  between  2300 
and  2200  b.c.  Recent  investigations  have  led  scholars  {e.g.  King) 
to  bring  the  date  down  to  c.  1900  b.c.  Granting  this  identifica- 
tion, the  other  problem  relates  to  the  historicity  of  the  narrative. 
If  it  represents  trustworthy  tradition  then  it  has  a  very  important 
bearing  on  the  date  of  Abraham.  But  on  this  point  the  \'iews  of 
scholars  are  greatly  divided.  Cf.,  on  the  one  hand.  Baton  (who 
regards  Abram  and  Abraham  as  two  distinct  persons),  that  this 
chapter  must  rest  on  some  early  documentary  basis  in  view  of  its 
"surprisingly  accurate  knowledge  of  early  Babylonian  history" 
(Early  Hist.  Syria,  etc.,  35  f.).  On  the  other  hand,  cf.  Skinner 
who  concludes  that  the  improbabilities  of  the  account  "more 
than  neutralize  the  impression  of  trustworthiness  which  the  pre- 
cise dates,  numbers,  and  locahties  may  at  first  produce"  (Gen. 
274).  Cf.  further  Ap.  C  on  Chronology,  p.  338,  a;  also  Comms., 
Introds.  and  Bible  Diets,  in  loc. 

of  Palestine,  pp.  30-44),  ef.  pp.  13  ff.     For  the  meaning  of  the  symbols 
employed  on  this  and  the  following  pages,  J,  E,  etc.,  see  in  addition  to 
preceding  reference  the  list  of  Abbreviations,  pp.  xxxii  f. 
^  For  definition  of  "Midrash,"  cf.  p.  60. 


32         AN   INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

B.    Narratives  Relating  to  Isaac  and  Jacob.    Gen.  25  :  19-38  :  30. 

i.    Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  These  chapters  are  largely  a  blending  of  the  Prophetic  sources, 
J  and  E  =  JE.     See  further  under  b,  c  and  d  below. 

b.  J  is  found  especially  in  chaps.  26  :  1-33  (mostly) ;  27  :  1-45 ; 
30  (mostly) ;  32-33  (mostly) ;  Joseph's  treatment  by  his  brethren 
[=37:25-4,  12-18,  21,  256-27  (from  '^and  they  lifted,  etc."), 
28&  ("sold  .  .  .  silver"),  31-35];    chap.  38. 

c.  E  is  found  especially  in  chaps.  31  (mostly) ;  Joseph's  treat- 
ment by  his  brethren  [  =  37 :  5-11,  19-20,  22-25a,  28a  (to  "pit"), 
28c  (from  "And  they")  -30,  36]. 

d.  F  =25:19  f .,  266 ;  26  :  34  f . ;  27  :  46-28  :  9 ;  29  :  24,  286-29 ; 
31 :  186 ;  33  :  18a ;  chap.  34  (in  part) ;  35  :  6a  (?),  9-13,  15,  226- 
29;  36:1-30  (31-39?,  or  =  J),  40-43;  37 :  l-2a  (to  "old"  or 
''was"). 

e.  With  26 :  6-22  (J),  cf.  12 :  10-20  (J^)  and  chap.  20  (E). 

C.     Narratives  Relating  to  Joseph  in  Egypt,     c.  1600  b.c.  or 
c.  1375  ff.  B.C.     Gen.  39-50.1 

i.   Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  These  chapters  are  largely  derived  from  the  Prophetic  sources 
=  JE.     Cf.  further  under  6,  c  and  d  below. 

6.  J  is  found  especially  in  chaps.  39  (mostly) ;  43  (mostly) ; 
44;  46:28-47:31  (mostly,  cf.  P,  under  d,  below);   50:  1-11,  14. 

c.  E  is  found  especially  in  chaps.  40-42  (mostly) ;  45  and  48 
(mostly) ;  50  :  15-26. 

d.  P  =  41 :  46 ;  46  :  6-27 ;  47  :  5,  6a,  7-11,  276-28 ;  48  :  3-6  (7) ; 
49  :  la,  286-33  ;  50  :  12  f . 

ii.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  There  is  much  uncertainty  connected  with  dating  these 
early  events.  This  is  due  to  the  difficulty  of  determining  the 
early  Egyptian  chronology,  and  also  the  lack  of  certainty  in  at- 
tempting to  synchronize  Biblical  events  with  Egyptian  history. 
Two  views  in  reference  to  the  time  of  Joseph's  career  in  Egypt 
may  be  mentioned,  (a)  It  is  generally  held  that  the  Pharaoh 
of  Joseph  was  one  of  the  Hyksos.  While  there  is  difference  of 
opinion  regarding  the  length  of  their  domination  in  Egypt  [cf. 
2098-1587  B.C.  (Petrie) ;  1675-1575  B.C.?,  (Breasted)],  by  many 
authorities  its  termination  is  placed  c.  1600  b.c.  (cf.  however, 
c.  1750  B.C.  =  Brugsch,  Budge).  Some  scholars  (on  the  authority 
of  George  the  Syncellus,  c.  800  a.d.)  identify  this  Pharaoh  with 

1  For  the  Blessing  of  Jacob,  Gen.  49 :  2-27,  cf .  especially  pp.  72  f . ;  83,  v.  a. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   EXODUS  —  DESERT   WANDERINGS     33 

Apepa  II,  the  last  important  Hyksos  king.  Hence  Joseph's  date 
=  shortly  before  or  about  1600  b.c.^  Cf.  McCurdy's  date  = 
c.  1900  B.C.  for  Joseph  (HPM,  iii.  p.  433) ;  cf.  Hommel  =  c.  1700 
B.C.  (Hebr.  Trad.  133).  (6)  Another  view  is  that  Amenophis  IV 
(1383-1365  B.C.  =Petrie;  1375-1358  b.c.  =  Breasted),  who 
was  Semitic  in  his  religious  sympathies,  was  the  Pharaoh  of 
Joseph.  Note  that  one  of  the  Biblical  estimates  of  the  length  of 
time  the  Israehtes  were  to  be  in  Egypt  is  four  generations  =  100 
to  150  years  (Gen.  15:16,  JE).  100-150  years  +  c.  1225  b.c. 
(if  this  is  accepted  as  the  approximate  date  of  the  Exodus,  cf .  p.  35, 
ii.  a.),  would  harmonize  practically  with  the  reign  of  this  Pharaoh. 
(Cf.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc.,  222,  226.  Kent,  Heroes,  etc.,  150, 
etc.)     See  also  Ap.  C,  pp.  338  f. 


III.  B.  Narratives  (and  Literature)  of  the  Period  of  the 
Exodus  and  Desert  Wanderings  =  Exodus  to  Deuter- 
onomy, in  part.     c.  1300  (?)-c.  1200  (?)  b.c. 

A.  Narratives  of  the  Oppression  of  the  Israelites  and  the  Steps 
Leading  to  their  Deliverance,  c.  1300-1225  (?)  b.c.  Exodus 
1 :  1-12  :  36.2 

i.    Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  These  chapters  are  derived  largely  from  the  Prophetic 
sources  =  JE,  Cf.  further  under  6,  c  and  d  below.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  separation  of  the  J  and  E  sources  from  each 
other  is  more  difficult  in  Exodus  than  in  Genesis.  Authorities 
frequently  differ  in  their  analyses  of  the  J  and  E  material. 

h.  J  is  found  especially  in  2:ll-23a;  4:1-6:1  (mostly); 
8-10  (mostly) ;    12  :  21-36  (mostly).     See  d  below. 

c.  E  is  found  especially  in  1 :  15-20a,  21  f. ;  2  :  1-10 ;  3  (mostly)  .^ 

d.V  =  l'.  1-5,  7,  13  f. ;  2  :  236-25 ;  6  :  2-7  :  13  ;  7  :  19-20a, 
216-22;  8:5-7,156-19;  9:8-12;   ll:9f.;   12:1-20,28. 

e.  With  6  :  2  ff.  (P),  cf.  3  :  13  ff.  (E). 

/.  The  section  6 :  2-27  +  6 :  28-7 :  13  (P)  is  not  the  sequel  of 
3 :  1-6 :  1  (JE),  but  is  a  parallel  account  of  the  call,  commission 
and  initial  work  of  Moses.  The  point  in  the  narrative  reached  at 
7 :  13  is  the  same  as  that  at  6 :  1. 

1  Some  scholars,  however,  identify  the  Apepa  mentioned  in  the  tradi- 
tion preserved  by  this  Byzantine  writer  with  Apepa  I  =  also  one  of  the 
Hyksos  kings  (15th  dynasty);  e.g.  Ball,  Light  from  East,  80;  cf.  also 
ref.  Ryle,  Gen.  469. 

2  For  Ex.  12  :  1-20  as  a  part  of  the  Priestly  legal  code  (P),  cf.  p.  263,  iv.  1. 

3  Note  Ex.  2 :  1-14  (E)  and  2 :  15-23a  (J)  according  to  LOT,  22  (latest 
ed.). 


34        AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

g.  The  only  plague  which  belongs  exclusively  to  E  is  that  of 
*' darkness,"  viz.  10 :  21-23,  27. 
h.  For  dupUcation  of  sources  in  chaps.  12-13,  cf.  below,  B,  i.  e. 

ii.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  While  the  same  fact  of  uncertainty  holds  true  in  reference 
to  the  date  of  the  Oppression,  which  was  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  date  of  Joseph  (pp.  32  f.,  ii.  a.),  it  is  to  be  noticed  that 
scholars  generally  identify  Rameses  II  of  the  19th  dynasty  with 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression.  This  identification  is  based  largely 
on  the  discovery  by  Naville  in  1883  of  the  site  of  ancient  Pithom 
(Ex.  1:11)  at  Tel-el-Maskhuta,  which  from  inscriptions  found 
therein  showed  that  it  was  founded  by  Rameses  II.  The  dates 
of  this  king's  reign  of  67  years  vary  according  to  different  author- 
ities :  e.g.  1300-1234  b.c.  (Petrie) ;  1292-1225  b.c.  (Breasted). 
Accordingly  the  Oppression  may  be  dated  c.  1300  ff.  b.c.  Note, 
however,  the  date  c.  1580  b.c.  for  the  beginning  of  the  Oppression, 
McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  433.  See  also  the  dates  given  p.  35 
under  ii.  a.  Note  Sayce's  dates  for  Rameses  II  =  1348-1281  b.c. 
(cf.  Early  Hist.  Hebrs.  148). 

For  the  date  c.  1200  (?)  b.c.  for  the  close  of  this  period,  cf. 
pp.  42  f.,  iv.  a.     See  also  Ap.  C,  pp.  340  ff. 

B.    Narratives  of  the  Exodus  and  the  Journey  to  Sinai,    c.  1225  ( ?) 
B.C.     Ex.  12  :  37-18  :  27  ' 

i.   Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  These  chapters  are  derived  largely  from  the  Prophetic 
sources  =  JE.     Cf.  further  under  6,  c,  d  and  e  below. 

b.  J  is  found  especially  in  13  :  3-16. 

c.  E  is  found  especially  in  chaps.  17-18  (mostly). 

d.  P  =  12  :  37-13  :  2,  20  (except  possibly  12  :  376-39  =  J  or 
E) ;  14 : 1-4,  8  f .,  15-18,  21*,  22  f .,  26-27a,  28a,  29 ;  16  (except 
possibly  vss.  4  f.,  25-30  =  J  or  E) ;   17  :  la. 

6.  In  the  section  12 :  1-13 :  16  the  duplication  of  sources  can 
be  readily  seen.  Thus  P  =  12 :  1-13  (the  Passover),  14-20 
(Unleavened  Bread) ;  28,  37a,  40-42,  51  (narrative) ;  43-50  (sup- 
plemental facts  relating  to  the  Passover) ;  13 :  1-2  (Firstborn). 
JE  =  12 :  21-27  (the  Passover) ;  29-36,  376-38  (narrative,  con- 
tinuing 11 :  4-8) ;  vs.  39  +  13  :  3-10  (Unleavened  Bread) ;  13  :  11- 
16  (Firstborn).  According  to  a  number  of  scholars  there  is  a  large 
admixture  of  D^  in  the  parts  assigned  to  JE,  cf .  McNeile,  Bennett, 
Driver,  etc.,  in  loc.     See  p.  20,  first  paragraph. 

1  For  Ex.  12 :  43-50  +  13 : 1  f.  as  a  part  of  the  Priestly  legal  code, 
of.  p.  263,  iv.  1. 


BIBLICAL  OUTLINE   EXODUS  —  DESERT  WANDERINGS     35 

/.  With  16:9  ff.,  13  (quails  =  P),  cf.  Num.  11 :  10  ff.,  31  ff. 
(quails  =  J). 

g.  With  17 :  16-7  (water  from  the  rock  =  E  largely),  cf.  Num. 
20 :  2-13  (water  from  the  rock  =  P  largely). 

ii.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  date  of  the  Exodus  is  involved  in  uncertainty  as  well  as 
the  dates  of  Joseph  (pp.  32  f .,  ii.  a.)  and  the  Oppression  (p.  34,  ii.  a.). 
(a)  It  is  frequently  assigned  by  scholars  to  the  reign  of  Memep- 
tah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Rameses  II,  whose  dates  =  1234- 
1214  B.C.  (Petrie),  or  c.  1225-1215  B.C.  (Breasted).  Hence  the 
Exodus,  if  in  this  reign,  may  be  placed  c.  1225  b.c.  (6)  Some 
think  the  time  of  weakness  following  the  reign  of  Merneptah  a 
more  probable  date;  while  (c)  others  assign  it  to  the  time  of 
Rameses  III  of  the  20th  dynasty,  —  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  or 
immediately  after  [e.g.  McCurdy,  HPM,  i.  pp.  203  f.  (§§  167  f.), 
iii.  p.  32  (§  879,  n.  1),  434;  but  note  that  according  to  the  chro- 
nology adopted  by  McCurdy  the  date  =  c.  1200  b.c.].  Some  of 
the  variant  dates  for  this  event  are  c.  1320  b.c.  (Kautzsch,  LOT, 
168) ;  c.  1300  b.c.  (Cornill,  Hist.  Isr.  27  f.,  41  ff.) ;  c.  1277  b.c. 
(Sayce,  Early  Hist.  Hebrs.,  151) ;  1272  b.c.  (Hommel,  Hebr. 
Trad.,  264  f.),  etc.     See  also  Ap.  C,  p.  340  f.i 

It  may  be  added  that  some  scholars  identify  the  invading  people 
termed  Habiri  by  the  king  of  Jerusalem  in  the  Tel-el-Amarna 
tablets  (14th  cen.  b.c.)  with  the  Hebrews.  This  inference,  to- 
gether with  a  reference  to  Israel  among  conquered  peoples  of 
Palestine,  in  an  inscription  of  Merneptah,  has  led  some  scholars 
to  consider  c.  1400-c.  1250  b.c.  as  the  time  within  which  the 
conquest  of  Palestine  must  have  taken  place  (cf.  Robinson, 
Deut.,  etc.,  262  f.,  etc.).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  possible 
that  only  a  part  of  the  clans  of  Israel  went  to  Egypt  in  the  time 
of  Joseph.  Hence  recent  scholars,  who  date  the  Exodus  in 
Merneptah's  reign,  are  inclined  to  refer  the  ''Israel"  of  his  in- 
scription to  those  Israelites  whose  ancestors  never  migrated 
to  Egypt.  [Cf.  Driver,  Ex.  xxxix  f. ;  Paton,  Early  Hist.  Syria, 
etc.,  134  f. ;  Journal  Bib.  Lit.  vol.  xxxii.  pp.  27  ff.  (Paton),  etc.] 

b.  Moses'  Song  of  Triumph,  15 :  1-18,  incorporated  by  E  or 
R"^^,  is  generally  considered  either  a  poem  of  a  later  date  or  an  ex- 
pansion of  an  original  Mosaic  nucleus  (=  vss.  16-3,  or  16-11,  18). 
Note  (a)  vss.  136,  176  where  the  establishment  of  a  sanctuary, 
possibly  Solomon's  temple,  is  described ;  and  (6)  the  assumption, 
vss.  13  f.,  that  Israel  is  in  possession  of  Canaan,  which  point  to  a 
date  as  late  as  Solomon,  c.  980  ff.  b.c.  Others  assign  the  poem 
to  an  exilic  or  post-exilic  date  (cf .  McNeile  in  loo.    Cornill,  Introd. 

^  Cf.  also  dates  given  in  Skinner,  Gen.  xv,  n.  *. 


36       AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

118  f.).  Cf.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  51  f.  =  early  part  or  middle  of 
Persian  period).  Those  who  hold  that  much  of  the  poem  is  Mosaic 
refer  to  (a)  the  primitive  religious  conceptions  (cf.  vs.  3,  Jehovah 
as  ''a  man  of  war"),  and  (5)  the  style  of  the  Hebrew.  [Cf.  Kittel, 
Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  93,  96,  206  f.,  225  f.  G.  A.  Smith,  Early  Poet. 
Isr.  50  f.  Driver  formerly  in  LOT,  30,  but  cf.  his  more  recent 
view  =  ''not  later  than  the  early  years  of  the  Davidic  dynasty" ; 
see  his  Ex.  131;    also  LOT,  30  (latest  ed.).] 

c.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  events  described  in  chaps.  16-18 
are  considered  by  a  number  of  scholars  to  be  chronologically  mis- 
placed, belonging  later  in  the  desert  experiences.  (Note  that 
McFadyen  places  chap.  18  just  before  the  departure  from  Sinai, 
i.e.  after  Ex.  33  :  11  or  34  :  9  or  before  Num.  10 :  29,  cf.  his  Hists. 
68;  his  Introd.  19,  n.  1.) 

C.    Israel  at  Sinai  (Horeh).     c.  1225  ff.  (?)  B.C. 

i.  Narratives  relating  to  Israel  at  Sinai  =  Ex.  19-24 ;  (25-31) ; 
32-34;  (35-40);  (Lev.  8-9;  10:1-7,  16-20;  24:10-12); 
Num.  1-2;    (3-4);   6:22-27;   7;   (9);   10 : 1-10.^ 

ii.   Literary  productions. 

a.  The  Little  Book  of  the  Covenant,  Ex.  34 :  14,  17-26  (J). 

h.  The  nucleus  of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  in  Ex.  20 :  22-23  : 
19  (or  -33)  (E). 

c.  The  original  form  of  the  Decalogue  in  Ex.  20 :  2-17,  cf.  Deut. 
5:6ff. 

iii.   Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  In  this  particular  period  the  Priestly  source  supplies  the 
largest  part  of  the  Biblical  material,  but  a  good  share  of  P  strictly 
belongs  to  the  legal  rather  than  the  narrative  part  of  the  Code. 
Cf.  n.  ^  below. 

b.  J  is  found  especially  in  Ex.  34  :  1-28  (in  the  main). 

c.  E  is  found  especially  in  Ex.  20-23 ;  32  (to  a  considerable 
extent). 

d.  F  =  Ex.  19  :  l-2a ;  24  :  15?>-18a ;  25  : 1-31 :  18a ;  34  :  29- 
35 ;  35^0  and  the  sections  in  Lev.  and  Num.  indicated  above. 
The  remainder  of  the  material  in  Exodus  =  JE. 

e.  The  duplication  of  sources  in  the  JE  material  in  Ex.  19-34 
as  related  to  the  Code  on  which  the  Covenant  was  based  is,  in  the 
main,   as  follows.     J  =  19:35-9,   116-13,   18,  20-25  +34:1-28 

*  For  Ex.  25-31,  35-40 ;  also  the  sections  of  Lev.  and  Num.  given  above, 
as  a  part  of  the  Priestly  legal  code,  of.  pp.  263  f.,  iv.  1.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  some  of  these  sections  of  P  are  assigned  by  a  number  of  scholars  to 
the  latest,  supplementary  stratum  of  P  (  =  P^),  espec.  Ex.  30:  1-31:  11; 
chaps.  35-40  ( ?) ;  Lev.  8 ;  Num.  1^  ( ?).    See  p.  266,  v.  o. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    EXODUS  —  DESERT  WANDERINGS     37 

(  =  the  ''Little  Book  of  the  Covenant'';  vss.  16,  46  =  R)  + 
24  :  1-2,  9-11.  E  =  20  :  22-23  :  33  (  =''Book  of  the  Covenant") 
+  24 :  3-8,  12-15a.  The  tradition  that  the  Decalogue  (Ex.  20, 
cf.  Deut.  5:6  ff.)  was  the  basis  of  the  Covenant  is  first  found  in 
Deut.  4  :  13  ;  5  :  22.  See  further  on  these  Codes  under  iv.  below. 
/.  The  Priestly  Blessing,  Num.  6 :  22-27,  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  section  of  earUer  origin  incorporated  by  P.  The  exact  date 
of  it  is  uncertain. 

iv.  Chronological  notes,  i.e.  in  reference  to  the  legal  material  in  the 
JE  sections. 

a.  The  ten  laws  found  in  Ex.  34 :  14,  17-26  (J)  are  similar  to 
others  found  in  the  Decalogue  (Ex.  20  :  1  ff .  //  Deut.  5  :  6  ff .)  and  the 
''  Book  of  the  Covenant  "  (Ex.  20  :  22-23  :  19,  espec.  23  :  12,  14-19). 
The  laws  and  regulations  embodied  in  these  verses  are  regarded 
by  many  scholars  of  the  present  day  as  representing  the  oldest 
form  of  the  essentials  of  Jehovah  worship,  of  which  the  parallel 
in  the  E  document  is  found  in  the  laws  at  the  basis  of  the  ''Book 
of  the  Covenant"  {e.g.  20  :  23a,  24a ;  22  :  29-31 ;  23  :  12,  15-16a, 
18,  196).  From  this  point  of  view,  their  logical  position  (and 
possibly  their  original  one)  is  directly  after  19 :  20-22,  25  ( =  J's 
introduction  to  the  Covenant  at  Sinai).     See  above  under  iii,  e. 

Kent  thinks  that  seven  at  least  of  these  commandments  "may 
well  have  come  from  the  nomadic  period  of  Israel's  history  and 
therefore  from  the  great  leader  Moses,"  and  that  even  the  three 
others  which  imply  agricultural  conditions  (vss.  21,  22  and  26a) 
may  possibly  be  "later  versions  of  commands  originally  appli- 
cable to  the  days  of  Moses"  (cf.  Lawgivers  24).  Others,  while 
recognizing  the  primitive  character  of  these  laws,  date  them  as 
a  whole  subsequent  to  the  Conquest  of  Palestine.  Cf.  Kent's 
more  recent  view  that  these  laws  "in  their  present  form  cannot 
be  definitely  dated  earUer  than  the  days  of  the  united  kingdom" 
(Isr.  Laws  and  Precedents,  16  f.,  21). 

6.  The  "Book  of  the  Covenant"  (Ex.  20 :  22-23  :  19),  the  name 
of  which  is  derived  from  Ex.  24 :  7,  was  incorporated  in  E,  or 
possibly  by  R*^^  in  JE.  The  general  trend  of  opinion  among  O.  T. 
scholars  is  that  the  laws  of  this  Code  in  their  present  form  are  later 
than  the  age  of  Moses,  i.e.  date  from  the  time  Israel  was  in  actual 
possession  of  Palestine.  This  view  is  based  upon  the  fact  that 
the  different  provisions  and  enactments  are  applicable  to  an 
agricultural  and  settled  community  rather  than  to  a  nomadic  one, 
and  hence  presuppose  that  time  in  Israel's  history.^  Not  unUkely 
it  represents  a  development  of  laws  from  the  time  of  Moses  to 
c.  900  B.C.    Cf.  more  definitely  =  Mosaic  (McCurdy?,  Kittel) ; 

1  Cf.,  however,  on  this  point  Peritz,  0.  T.  Hist.  pp.  89ff.  (§§  61,  63). 


38        AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD  TESTAMENT 

=  laws  of  early  monarchy  (Cornill,  W.  R.  Harper,  W.  R.  Smith)  ; 
c.  900  B.C.  but  incorporating  usage  as  old  as  Solomon  or  older 
(H.  P.  Smith) ;  reign  of  Ahab,  875-853  B.C.  (Kautzsch). 

Two  elements  are  recognized  in  the  ''  Book  of  the  Covenant," 
viz.  the  ''Words"  (or  ''Commands"),  and  the  "Judgments"  (or 
"Ordinances,"  cf.  24:  1,  3).  The  latter  are  hj^othetical  in  form 
and  are  found  especially  in  chaps.  21  f.  According  to  some 
scholars,  the  "Judgments"  sections  formed  originally  an  independ- 
ent code  of  ancient  "case  law";  while  the  "Words"  (  =  "Book 
of  the  Covenant"  proper)  related  to  worship  {e.g.  20:22-26; 
22  :  29-31 ;  23  :  10-19,  together  with  the  closing  exhortation 
23:20-33). 

G.  In  comparing  the  form  of  the  Decalogue  given  in  Ex.  20 
(E)  with  Deut.  5 : 6  if .  (which  is  represented  as  being  a  repro- 
duction of  the  former,  cf.  Deut.  5 :  5,  22),  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
present  considerable  verbal  variation,  especially  in  the  4th,  5th 
and  10th  commandments.  The  explanation,  which  has  found 
general  acceptance  among  scholars  for  these  differences,  is  that 
originally  these  precepts  were  much  shorter,  expressing  simply 
the  command,  e.g.  "Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a  graven 
image,"  etc.,  thus  corresponding  in  form  to  those  of  the  second 
table,  "Thou  shalt  do  no  murder,"  etc.  This  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  present  forms  of  the  Decalogue,  as  found  in  Ex. 
and  Deut.  are  later  than  the  time  of  Moses.  As  regards  the  date 
of  the  original  form  of  the  Decalogue  as  a  whole,  a  number  of 
modem  scholars  assign  it  to  a  time  much  later  than  the  age  of 
Moses.  This  conclusion  is  based  especially  on  the  prohibition 
of  images  (Ex.  20:4;  Deut.  5:8),  which,  it  is  claimed,  shows 
the  influence  of  the  8th  cen.  prophets.  Cf.  the  recognition  of 
images  and  other  symbols  as  a  part  of  religious  custom  down  to 
the  8th  cen.  (Judg.  8 :  27 ;  18  :  30 ;  1  Sam.  19  :  13,  16 ;  Hos.  3  :  4, 
etc.).  Hence  such  dates  as,  not  much  later  than  750  B.C.  {e.g. 
Gray,  W.  R.  Harper),  or  according  to  some  the  7th  cen.  {e.g. 
Addis,  Moore),  or  possibly  later  (cf.  McNeile,  Ex.  in  loc).  On 
the  other  hand,  on  account  of  their  simplicity  and  primitive 
character  many  modem  scholars  accept  the  original  form  of  the 
precepts  as  Mosaic.  It  is  further  maintained  that  the  use  of  reli- 
gious symbols  was  not  universal  in  Israel.  Cf .  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  reference  to  the  use  of  images  at  the  sanctuaries  where  the 
Ark  was  in  the  days  of  EH,  nor  in  the  temple  of  Solomon.  (See 
espec.  Driver,  Ex.  413  ff. ;  cf .  also  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  41 
(§  892).  Kent,  Lawgivers,  24  f . ;  his  Heroes,  etc.,  196.  Kittel, 
Scient.  Study  O.  T.,  39  f.     Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  62  f.,  etc.) 

For  the  relation  of  this  code  to  the  laws  in  Ex.  34,  cf.  above 
n.  a. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    EXODUS  —  DESERT   WANDERINGS     39 

D.     From  Sinai    (Horeh)    to   Canaan    (Palestine),   Including    the 
Conquest  of  Moah  and  Bashan.     c.  1225  (?)  to  c.  1200  (?)  b.c. 

i.  Narratives  relating  to  Israel  from  Sinai  to  Canaan.  =  Num. 
10:11-14:45;  15:32-36;  16:1-18:7;  20-27;  31-34;  (35- 
36);  Deut.  1 :  1-4  :  49 ;  9:7-10:11;  11:5-7;  (27:1-8,11-13; 
chaps.  29-30) ;  31 ;  (32  :  1-43),  44-52;   (33) ;  34.^ 

ii.   Literary  productions  possibly  dating  from  this  time. 

a.  Num.  21  :  146-15.     Song  of  the  Arnon. 

b.  Num.  21 :  17-18.     Song  of  the  Well. 

c.  Num.   21:276-30    (?).     Song  of  Triumph  over  Sihon   (or 

Moab). 

iii.   Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  In  this  period,  in  addition  to  the  Prophetic  and  Priestly 
sources  in  the  narratives,  the  Deuteronomic  appears,  though  a 
number  of  scholars  find  traces  of  this  source  in  the  records  of  pre- 
vious periods  (cf.  p.  20).     Cf.  further  under  6,  c,  d  and  e  below. 

6.  J  is  found  especially  in  Num.  10 :  29-36  (vs.  34  =  P) ; 
22:22-35a;   24  (mostly). 

c.  E  is  found  especially  in  Num.  12  (vs.  16  =  J) ;  21 :  12-30 ; 
22:2-21,  356-40  (mostly);    23  (mostly). 

d.  D2  (or  D)  =  Deut.  1:1^:40  (1 :  3  =  P) ;  4:41-43  (?), 
44-49;  9:7-10:11;  11:5-7;  27:1-8,  11-13;  29-30;  31  (in 
part);  32:44-47;  34  (in  part).  Of  these  sections  the  vss.  in 
chap.  27  and  chaps.  29-30  belong  more  properly  to  the  legal 
section  of  D. 

6.  P  =  Num.  10:  11-28,  34.  Account  of  spies  [=  13 :  l-17a, 
21  or  216,  25-26a,  32a  or  32;  14 :  la,  2,  5-7,  10,  26-30,  34-38, 
39a  (?)];2  15:32-6.  Account  of  Korah's  rebellion  [=  16:1a, 
26-7a  (76-11,  16  f.),  18-24,  27a,  326,  35  (36^0),  41-50,  chap.  17] 
18  :  1-7  ;  20  :  la,  2,  36-4,  6-13,  22  (or  226)-29 ;  21 :  4a,  10  f . ; 
22:1;  25:6-18;  26-27;  29-31;  32:1-38  (?);  33:50-34:29; 
35 ;  36 ;  Deut.  1:3;  32  :  48-52 ;  34  :  la,  56,  7-9. 

Of  these  sections  some  more  properly  should  be  classified  with 
the  legal  portion  of  P,  e.g.  Num.  15  :  32-36 ;  18 : 1-7 ;  27  : 1-11 ; 
29-31 ;  35-36.     See  p.  264,  iv.  1. 

The  remainder  of  the  material  undesignated  in  these  narra- 
tives =  JE. 

/.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  narrative  Nima.  10 :  29-36  (J)  joins 
directly  with  the  story  as  found  in  Ex.  32 : 1-34  :  28  (JE). 

1  For  the  Song  of  Moses,  Deut.  32 :  1-43,  cf.  pp.  183  f. ;  193,  ii.  3.  h. ; 
for  the  Blessing  of  Moses,  Deut.  33,  cf.  pp.  131  f. ;  141,  ii.  h. ;  for  the  Balaam 
poems  in  Num.  23-24,  see  p.  41,  iv.  c,  and  p.  83,  v.  c. 

2  According  to  a  number  of  authorities  Num.  14 :  32  f .  (or  at  least 
vs.  33)  belong  also  to  P. 


40        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

g.  Cf.  with  the  story  of  the  quails  Num.  11 :  10  £f.,  31-35 
(  =  largely  J)  the  account  in  Ex.  16  :  9  ff.,  13  (P). 

h.  Num.  13-14,  the  story  of  the  spies,  contain  a  duplication  of 
accounts,  each  forming  practically  a  complete  story.  Cf.  above 
(n.  6.)  for  the  P  material;    the  remaining  vss.  =  JE. 

i.  Num.  16-17  contain  a  combination  of  two  and  possibly  three 
accounts.  In  the  parts  of  P  (cf.  above  n.  e.)  not  enclosed  in 
the  parentheses  the  story  =  Korah  and  others  oppose  Moses  and 
Aaron  in  reference  to  restricting  the  priestly  rights  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi.  The  parts  enclosed  in  the  parentheses  (P^?)  =  fragments 
of  an  account  of  Korah  and  250  Levites  opposing  the  exclusive 
claims  of  the  priestly  prerogatives  of  Aaron  and  his  sons.  In 
the  story  found  in  the  remaining  vss.  (largely  J),  Dathan  and 
Abiram  express  their  dissatisfaction  with  the  leadership  of  Moses. 

j.  With  Num.  20:  2-13  (water  from  the  rock  =  P  largely),  cf. 
Ex.  17  :  16-7  (water  from  the  rock  =  E  largely). 

k.  Num.  32 : 1-38  is  one  of  the  difficult  sections  to  analyze, 
though  it  is  generally  recognized  as  composite  in  character.  Pos- 
sibly the  basis  is  JE,  which  was  subsequently  worked  over  by  a 
priestly  writer ;  cf .  Josh.  22  and  Judg.  20. 

I.  It  is  a  question  whether  Deut.  1 :  1-4  :  40  belongs  to  the  orig- 
inal book  of  Deut.  or  is  somewhat  later  (=  D^).  The  latter  is 
the  more  common  view,  though  Driver  assigns  only  3 :  14-17 ; 
4  :  29-31  to  D^. 

The  historical  review  contained  in  this  section  (cf.  also  the 
historical  referenc.es  in  9:7-10:11  and  11:5-7)  is  based  upon 
JE  sections  in  Ex.  and  Num.  (or  on  those  of  E  alone),  not  on  P. 
It  is  the  suggestion  of  some  scholars  that  this  section,  at  least 
chaps.  1-3,  =  the  outgrowth  of  a  like  address  found  in  the  older 
code  (E). 

iv.  Chronological  notes  especially  in  reference  to  the  poetical  litera- 
ture incorporated  in  the  narratives. 

a.  The  two  poetic  fragments  in  Num.  10 :  35  f .  bear  the  marks 
of  great  antiquity.  They  may  possibly  have  been  derived  from 
the  ''Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah"  (cf.  below  n.  h.). 

b  Num.  21  well  illustrates  the  use  made  by  the  Prophetic  docu- 
ments of  existing  poems.  The  sources  of  such  are  rarely  indi- 
cated, but  vss.  14  f.  are  said  to  be  derived  from  a  book,  ''The 
Wars  of  Jehovah,"  which  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  been  an 
anthology  of  patriotic  poems.  (Cf.  also  the  "Book  of  Jashar" 
referred  to  in  Josh.  10  :  12  f . ;  2  Sam.  1 :  18.)  Possibly  the  other 
poems  of  this  chapter  may  have  been  taken  from  the  same  col- 
lection. On  this  point  the  opinion  of  scholars  differs.  The  date 
of  this  compilation  of  poems  ("The  Wars  of  Jehovah")  is  uncer- 
tain.    It  is  obviously  later  than  the  age  of  Moses.     The  time  of 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE     41 

David  and  Solomon  (i.e.  c.  1020  (?)  ff.  b.c.)  seems  as  probable  a 
date  as  any  suggested.     Cf.  Comms.,  Introds.  and  Bible  Diets. 

The  two  brief  poems  Num.  21  :  146-15  and  17-18  may  with 
considerable  probabiHty  be  assigned  to  the  times  to  which  they 
refer  [McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  42  (§  894)],  though  on  this  point 
the  opinion  of  modem  scholars  differs.  Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds. 
in  loc. 

The  longer  poetic  piece,  Num.  21 :  276-30  [referred  to  as  being 
recited  by  those  ''that  speak  in  proverbs"  (vs.  27a)  =  possibly 
''reciters  of  traditional  songs"],  is  of  uncertain  date.  The  view 
now  usually  held  is  that  it  is  a  composition  of  a  later  date  than  the 
age  of  Moses ;  e.g.  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  8:2;  cf .  Gordon, 
Poets,  etc.,  35  f.) ;  or,  a  more  common  opinion,  that  it  refers  to 
the  conquest  of  Moab  in  the  9th  century  (=  Omri's  reign,  887- 
875  B.C.).     Cf.  Comms.,  Introds.  in  loc. 

c.  The  date  of  the  poems  in  Num.  23-24,  in  their  present  form, 
is  now  generally  regarded  by  0.  T.  scholars  as  not  being  earlier 
than  the  time  of  David  (c.  1020  (?)  ff.  B.C.).  Cf.  (a),  24  :  17-19, 
which  might  appropriately  refer  to  his  conquests;  also  (6),  the 
condition  of  great  national  prosperity  reflected  in  the  poems. 
24  :  20-24  =  a  later  supplement  to  the  other  poems  (cf.  "Assyria," 
vs.  22,  which  points  to  a  date  as  late  as  the  8th  cen.  at  least). 

d.  Num.  32  :  39^2  is  a  fragment  probably  from  J  (vs.  40  =  R). 
According  to  many  scholars  the  events  described  in  it  belong 
chronologically  in  connection  with  the  conquest  of  Western  Pales- 
tine (cf.  Judg.  1),  or  subsequent  to  it. 

e.  It  is  the  suggestion  of  some  scholars  that  before  D  was  com- 
bined Tvdth  JE  (cf .  pp.  24  f.)  the  "Book  of  the  Covenant "  may  have 
occupied  the  place  (in  the  order  of  arrangement),  of  the  present 
book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  that  at  the  time  of  the  combination  of 
JE  and  D  ( =  JED)  it  was  transferred  to  its  present  position. 
Cf.  HDB,  ii.  375a  (Woods).  Cornill,  Introd.  63.  Chapman, 
Introd.  Pent.  143,  etc. 

IV.  B.  Period   of  the   Conquest   of   Western   Palestine, 
c.  1200-c.  1190  (?)  B.C. 

i.  Narratives  of  the  conquest  of  western  Palestine  =  Joshua  + 
Judges  1:1-2:  5. 

ii.   Literature  possibly  to  he  assigned  to  this  period, 
a.  Josh.  10 :  126-13a.    Joshua's  Command  to  the  Sun  and  Moon, 
iii.   Composition  of  the  narratives. 

a.  In  Josh.  1-12  the  main  narrative  is  JE;  P  is  found  rarely. 
The  JE  material  bears  evidence  of  Deuteronomic  expansions  and 


42        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

additions,  designated  D^  or  R^.  Possibly  some  portions  of  JE 
have  been  re-written  by  D^.  The  task  of  separating  J  from  E  in 
these  chapters  is  a  very  difficult  one.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many 
scholars  that  whereas  the  groundwork  of  the  Pentateuch  is  P 
that  of  Joshua,  at  least  of  chaps.  1-12,  is  JED. 

In  Josh.  13-24,  especially  in  the  sections  recording  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  territory,  P  is  the  leading  source  (though  not  improb- 
ably based  upon  JE  material),  thus  forming  the  framework  of  the 
narrative  as  in  the  Pentateuch.  The  JE  element  is  much  less 
than  in  chaps.  1-12.  The  Deuteronomic  passages  in  this  section, 
especially  chaps.  13-21,  are  few.     Cf.  further  b-e  below. 

6.  JE  is  found  in  Josh.  2  (mostly) ;  5-6  (mostly) ;  7  (vss.  1, 
24*  =  P) ;  8  : 1-29  (mostly) ;  9  (mostly) ;  10  : 1-24  (mostly) ; 
15:14-19,  63;  16:1-3,  9  (?),  10;  17:16-2,  8,  96  (?),  11-18; 
19  :  9,  47,  49  f. ;  24  ( =  E ;  vss.  116,  13,  31  =  D^) ;  Judg.  1  (except 
R^  vss.,  cf.  below  n.  d). 

c.  D2  is  found  in  Josh.  1  (mostly) ;  8  :  30-35 ;   10  :  28-43  (based 
on  JE);    11  (vss.  1,4-9  =  JE) ;    12;    14:6-15;    21:43-45;    22 
1-8;  chap.  23. 

d.  P=Josh.  (3:4;  4 :  106,  13,  19?)^ ;  5:10-12;  6:236 
7  : 1,  24*  C'and  the  silver  .  .  .  tent") ;  9  :  15c  (''and  the  princes 
etc."),  17-21,  236  C' hewers  .  .  .  water"),  27a  C' hewers  .  . 
congregation");  13:15-32  (33);  14:1-5;  15:1-13,  20-62 
16  :  4-8 ;  17  :  la,  3-7,  9a  +  c,  10 ;  18  : 1,  11-28 ;  19  : 1-8,  10-46 
48,51;  20  (vss.  4  f.,  6*  =  R^) ;  21:1-42;  22:9-34;  Judg.  1 
la,  4,  8  f .,  18  ;  2  :  16-5a. 

e.  The  remaining  material  unassigned  =  JED. 

/.  Josh.  19 :  49  f .  =  the  JE  conclusion  of  the  account  of  the 
division  of  the  land;  vs.  51,  the  conclusion  of  P.  21:43-45  = 
that  of  D2. 

g.  The  origin  of  Josh.  22 : 9-34  is  somewhat  uncertain,  though 
generally  assigned  to  the  Priestly  source  on  account  of  the  phrase- 
ology. It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  it  is  based  on  a  JE 
narrative.     Cf.  Num.  32;    Judg.  20. 

iv.   Notes  on  chronology  and  order  of  the  narratives,  etc. 

a.  The  time  of  the  conquest  of  Palestine  is  involved  in  the 
chronological  problem  of  the  Exodus.  See  discussion,  p.  35,  ii.  a. 
Many  scholars  accept  the  date  c.  1200  B.C.  Some  of  the  variant 
dates  are  c.  1170-1160  B.C.  [McCurdy,  HPM,  i.  p.  225  (§  183); 
iii.  p.  434] ;  or  c.  1150  B.C.  (Curtis,  HDB,  i.  399a).  Cf.  c.  1280  B.C. 
(Kautzsch,  LOT,  168  f). 

If  c.  1225  B.C.  is  taken  as  the  date  of  the  Exodus  (p.  35,  ii.  a.),  and 
c.  1200  B.C.  as  that  of  the  conquest  of  Palestine,  then  the  interven- 

1  According  to  LOT,  105  (latest  ed.)  in  Josh.  4,  P  =  vss.  13,  15-17,  19. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   CONQUEST   OF   PALESTINE     43 

ing  period  of  about  25  years  does  not  correspond  exactly  to  the 
Biblical  estimate  of  40  years  for  the  desert  wanderings  [cf.  Num. 
14 :  33  f.  =  P  (or  JE,  P) ;  33  :  38  =  P ;  Josh.  5:6=  D^].  But 
this  is  not  a  serious  chronological  difficulty  as  the  number  40  is 
probably  to  be  taken  here,  as  in  many  other  cases,  as  a  round 
number ;  [see  on  this  point,  Ap.  C,  p.  334  (b)].  The  length  of  time 
occupied  in  the  Conquest  is  not  certain.  It  is  referred  to  as  "a, 
long  time"  (Josh.  11:18;  cf.  23 :  1  =  D^).  (a)  By  some  it  is 
estimated  as  about  7  years  on  the  basis  of  Josh.  14 :  7,  9  f .  (D^) ; 
cf .  Deut.  2  :  14.  (h)  Others  consider  that  the  Conquest  was  grad- 
ual, extending  over  a  long  period  of  time  {e.g.  H.  P.  Smith,  0.  T. 
Hist.  86). 

b.  The  ^'Book  of  Jashar,"  which  is  cited  in  Josh.  10 :  12  f.,  hke 
the^'Bookof  the  Wars  of  Jehovah"  (Num.21:  14,cf.pp.  40f.,iv.  6.), 
is  generally  regarded  as  a  collection  of  patriotic  poems.  The  collec- 
tion is  evidently  later  than  the  time  of  David  (cf.  2  Sam.  1 :  18). 
Possibly  its  date  is  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  c.  980-940  (?)  b.c, 
or  soon  after,  c.  930  b.c.  The  poetical  fragment,  which  is  here 
quoted  from  it,  is  undoubtedly  ancient,  and  if  not  contemporary 
with  the  event  celebrated,  at  least  it  dates  from  a  time  ''when  the 
battle  was  still  in  fresh  memory"  (Schmidt,  Poets,  353). 

c.  It  is  thought  by  some  scholars  that  after  the  section  on  the 
conquest  by  Joseph  (Judg.  1 :  22-29),  some  other  disconnected 
fragments  may  have  stood  originally ;  e.g.  Josh.  17  :  14-18 ;  Num 
32  :  39,  41  f. ;  Josh.  13  :  13.  With  Judg.  1 :  34  f.,  perhaps  Josh 
19 :  47  is  to  be  joined.  Driver  suggests  the  following  order 
(Judah  and  Simeon)  =  Judg.  1 : 1  (from  ''and  the  children,  etc.") 
2  f.,  5-7,  19,  21,  20a,  10a;    Josh.  15:14  (to  "Talmai");    Josh 

15  :  15-19  ( =  Judg.  1 :  11-15 ;   cf.  Josh.  14  :  136,  15a*) ;  Judg.  1 

16  f .,  36 ;    (Joseph)  =  Judg.  1 :  22-26,  27  f .  (  =  Josh.  17  :  12  f .) 
Judg.    1 :  29  ( =  Josh.  16  :  10) ;    Josh.    17  :  14-18 ;  13  :  13.     (The 
other  tribes)  =  Judg.  1 :  30-34 ;    Josh.  19  :  47  (LXX) ;    Judg.  1 
35.     Cf.  further  LOT,  163. 

d.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  adjust  the  two  accounts 
of  the  Conquest  contained  in  Josh.  1-11  and  Judg.  1  :  1  ff.  (and 
parallel  passages  in  Josh.),  so  as  to  give  the  chronological  sequence 
of  events.  According  to  some  scholars  (a)  the  J  account  of  the 
Conquest  ( =  Judg.  1 :  1  ff .  and  parallel  sections)  described  simply 
the  action  of  individual  tribes,  or  small  groups  of  tribes  (of  which 
these  sections  may  give  but  a  summary),  and  not  that  of  Israel 
as  a  whole.  (6)  According  to  others  the  probable  combination 
of  the  two  accounts  is  as  follows  :  (  =  in  substance  Kittel's  view) : 
Josh.  1-6  (united  Israel) ;  Judg.  1 :  1-21  (Judah  and  Simeon) ; 
Josh.  7  : 1-8  :  29  and  Judg.  1 :  22-26  (northern  tribes  under  Joshua ; 
capture  of  Ai  and  Bethel) ;   Josh.  8  :  30-10  :  27  (battle  at  Gibeon, 


44        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

etc.).  [Josh.  10 :  28-43  =  D^ ;  cf.  Judg.  1 : 1-21  =  J.]  Josh.  11 : 
1-9 ;  Judg.  1 :  27-36  (with  parallels  in  Josh.)  =  conquests  in  the 
north.  [Josh.  11 :  10-23,  D^  =  summary.]  (c)  Others  hold  the 
view  that  the  tribes  acted  unitedly  till  after  the  battle  of  Beth- 
horon  (Josh.  10),  then  Judah  undertook  the  conquest  of  the 
south  (Judg.  1:1  ff.) ;  and  Joshua  and  the  northern  tribes,  the 
north  (Josh.  11). 

e.  It  may  be  further  noted  that  owing  to  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  events  related  in  Judg.  1  are  represented  in  the  parallel  sec- 
tions as  occurring  in  the  lifetime  of  Joshua,  and  also  that  in  Judg. 
2 : 6  he  is  mentioned  as  being  still  alive,  it  is  the  consensus  of 
opinion  that  Judg.  1  belongs  chronologically  before  and  not  after 
his  death.  Hence  the  editorial  heading  (1 :  la  =  R^),  which 
connects  the  book  of  Judges  with  Joshua  (referring  to  ''after  the 
death  of  Joshua")?  applies  not  to  this  section,  but  to  the  main 
body  of  the  book. 

/.  Scholars  who  interpret  Gen.  34  as  an  attack  on  Shechem  by 
the  tribes,  Simeon  and  Levi,  assign  the  event  to  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  Palestine  or  the  early  period  of  the  Judges.  See  fur- 
ther, p.  53,  B.  iii.  c. 


V.  A.  Introductoey  and  Explanatory  Notes  to  the  His- 
tory AND  Literature  which  Relate  to  the  Period  of 
THE  Judges  ^ 

The  history  and  literature  relating  to  this  period  are  found 
in  Judges  2 : 6-21 :  25 ;  First  Samuel,  chapters  1-7,  and  in  the 
book  of  Ruth.2 

1.  The  Book  of  Judges,  This  book  contains  three  clearly 
defined  sections,  viz.  a  general  introduction,  1 : 1-2  :  5,  which 
has  already  been  considered  (pp.  41  ff.)  ;  the  history  proper 
of  the  Judges,  2  :  6-16  :  31 ;  and  an  appendix,  chaps.  17-21, 
which  contains  stories  connected  with  this  period. 

A  careful  reading  of  the  main  section  (2  :  6-16  :  31)  reveals 
the  hand  of  a  writer  or  writers,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
Deuteronomy,  whose  work  was  essentially  that  of  re-editing 
a  previously  existing  history  of  the  Judges,  or  rather  stories 
relating  to  them.  This  older  collection  of  narratives  was 
fitted  into  a  framework  (with  like-recurring  phraseology, 
written  from  a  standpoint  quite  distinct  from  the  original 
history),  from  which  were  deduced  moral  and  spiritual  les- 
sons, profounder  and  more  applicable  to  the  needs  of  this 
later  period.  These  Deuteronomic  sections,  which  do  not 
supply  the  historical  facts,  but  the  moral  and  spiritual  inter- 
pretation of  them,  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  their 
phraseology,  conceptions  and  spirit  (cf.  2:11-23,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent ;  3  :  7-9,  11,  12-15a,  306 ;  4  : 1-3,  etc).^ 

The  great  lessons  introduced  by  the  Deuteronomic  writer  or 
writers  were  (a)  that  Israel's  apostasy  was  punished  through  inva- 
sion by  different  surrounding  nations  and  subjection  to  their 
power ;  and  that  (6)  repentance  and  seeking  Jehovah's  help  were 
followed  by  deliverance  being  granted  by  Him,  through  the 
instrumentality   of   various   ''saviours,"    under   whom   the   land 

^  For  the  literature  having  its  origin  in  this  period,  cf.  p.  50,  ii,  cf. 
also  p.  54,  iv. 

2  For  introductory  notes  on  Ruth  and  its  historical  setting,  cf.  pp. 
249  fif. ;  264,  iv.  2. 

3  For  the  R^  sections  in  Judges,  see  pp.  50  f.,  iii.  h. 

45 


46        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

had  peace  and  prosperity  (cf.  references  above,  2:11  ff.,  etc.)- 
Observe  the  framework  as  it  appears  in  the  similar  phraseology 
of  the  opening  and  closing  of  each  of  these  sections. 

These  sections  are  termed  Deuteronomic,  and  the  editor  or 
editors  the  Deuteronomist,  because  the  great  lesson  contained 
therein,  viz.  the  value  of  obedience  to  Jehovah  and  the  fatal 
consequences  of  disobedience  (which  are  also  favorite  doctrines 
of  the  prophets  of  the  eighth  century  and  following),  occupies  so 
prominent  a  place  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  especially  in  the 
opening  and  closing  chapters  1-11  and  27-33  (e.g.  4:15-40; 
chap.  28;   29: 10-28)  .i 

The  chronological  scheme  of  the  book  is  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  added  by  the  Deuteronomist  (R^). 

The  date  of  the  Deuteronomic  revision  of  the  original 
stories  must  have  been  sometime  after  621  b.c,  the  year  of 
the  discovery  and  promulgation  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code^ 
and  it  may  with  probability  be  assigned  to  the  early  part  of 
the  Exile.2     See  p.  193,  ii.  3.  c. 

The  original  material  of  this  section  (2  :  6-16  :  31),  which 
supplies  the  graphic  narratives,  consists  of  the  portions 
remaining  after  the  Deuteronomic  element  is  separated.  It 
forms  the  large  proportion  of  these  chapters.  From  the 
clear  and  vivid  character  of  the  descriptions  the  date  of 
these  earlier  narratives  has  been  considered  by  some  scholars 
to  be  not  much  later  than  the  disruption  of  the  Kingdom 
in  937  B.C.3 

Others  place  it  later,  sometime  during  the  period  850-700 
B.C. ;  or  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century.^ 

From  evidences  of  duplication  in  some  of  the  stories  it  is 
now  commonly  held  that  this  main  section,  used  by  the 
Deuteronomist,  was  itself  the  product  of  two  independent 
writers,  whose  narratives  may  not  have  been  combined  till 
about  650  b.c.  These  two  sources  have  been  regarded  by 
many  scholars  as  belonging  to  the  same  Prophetic  series 
(J  and  E)  to  which  the  historical  sections  of  the  Hexateuch 
are  so  largely  indebted.  This  view,  however,  has  not  been 
adopted  by  all.  scholars.     The  important  point  to  be  noted 

1  Cf.,  however,  the  different  view  of  Konig  in  HDB,  ii.  812&,  8166. 

2  According  to  some  the  date  is  c.  600  b.c.  =  Gray,  Introd.  59,  61,  63. 

3  Cf.  HPM,  iii.  p.  57  (§  917).     Kautzsch,  LOT,  20  ff.,  178,  etc. 

*  Cf.  Moore,  Judg.  xxiv.  Bennett,  Introd.  82.  McFadyen,  Introd* 
81  f.     Gray,  Introd.  63  f.,  etc. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE    JUDGES  47 

is  that,  whatever  the  origin  of  these  eariy  narratives  may 
have  been,  their  standpoint  is  prophetic. 

Scholars  who  apply  the  symbols  J  and  E  to  this  material  in 
Judges  do  not  necessarily  mean  to  identify  the  authors  or  com- 
pilers of  these  stories  with  those  of  the  Prophetic  narratives  of  the 
Hexateuch,  but  to  indicate,  in  the  words  of  Moore,  'Hhat  they 
were  written  in  general  in  the  same  age  and  surroundings,  and  in 
the  same  spirit."  ^ 

From  (a)  the  absence  of  Deuteronomic  traces  in  the  appen- 
dix, chaps.  17-21,  and  from  (b)  the  indications  of  affinities 
in  some  portions  {e.g.  in  20 : 1-21 :  14)  with  late  Priestly 
writings,  especially  with  the  Chronicler,  it  is  inferred  that 
this  section,  originally  Prophetic  in  character  (JE?),  was 
omitted  in  the  Deuteronomic  revision,  and  was  restored  by  a 
late  Priestly  writer  (R^).^  To  this  same  late  editor  (c. 
400  B.C.)  it  is  also  believed  that  the  book  is  indebted  for  the 
introductory  section  (1 : 1-2 : 5)  and  other  portions  in  the 
main  body  of  narratives,  which  were  also  omitted  by  the 
Deuteronomic  reviser  (R^).  These  portions  are  indicated 
in  the  notes  in  connection  with  the  analysis  of  the  Biblical 
material.^  ^ 

2.  The  Books  of  Samuel.  First  and  Second  Samuel,  which 
originally  formed  one  book,^  reveal  the  same  processes  of 
composition,  though  not  to  the  same  extent,  as  have  been 
noticed  above  in  the  book  of  Judges.     That  is,  these  books 

»  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2635.     For  a  different  view  see  Konig  in  HDB,  ii.  811  ff. 

2  That  the  original  stories  were  as  late  as  the  monarchy  is  shown  by 
the  allusions  in  17  :  6 ;   18  :  1 ;    19  :  1 ;   21 :  25. 

3  For  the  main  additions  to  Judges  by  R^  cf.  pp.  51,  iii.  c. ;  52,  ii.  a. ; 
also  267,  V.  k.     Cf.  also  Cornill,  Introd.  178  f.,  etc. 

*  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Judges, 
LOT,  160  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  82  ff.  CorniU,  Introd.  156  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  21  f.,  45,  94,  120,  234  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  76  ff.  McFadyen, 
Hists.  93  f.,  121  ff.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  26  f.,  300  ff.  Kent,  United 
Kingd.  49  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  58  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  79  flf.  Kittel,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  ii.  1-22.  HDB,  ii.  807  ff.  (Konig).  EBi,  ii.  2633  ff.,  cf.  2079  ff. 
(Moore).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Judg.  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Moore) ;  Camb. 
B.  (Cooke  =  in  R.  V.) ;  Cen.  B.  (Thatcher).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  11  ff., 
71,  90.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  57  f.,  386  f.  (§§  917  f.,  1361).  H.  P. 
Smith,  0.  T.  Hist.  6  f .,  87  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  9.  Moore,  Judg.  (SBOT). 
Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  74  f.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  107  f.,  cf .  35,  93.  Fowler, 
Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  68  ff.,  97,  252  ff.,  303. 

^  For  the  grouping  of  1-2  Sam.  with  1-2  Ki.  in  the  LXX  and  their 
names,  cf .  p.  55,  n.  \ 


48   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

represent  the  re-editings  of  earlier  Prophetic,  historical  ma- 
terial from  the  Deuteronomic  and  priestly  standpoints,  dating 
from  exilic  and  post-exilic  times  respectively. 

In  reference  to  the  Deuteronomic  element,  however,  there 
is  this  difference  that  it  is  not  so  marked  as  in  Judges.  It 
consists  of  insertions  relatively  few,  though  not  unimportant, 
in  the  older  Prophetic  narratives.  This  means  that  the 
Deuteronomic  editors  probably  found  the  material  contained 
in  the  books  in  practically  its  present  form. 

The  additions  from  the  Priestly  source  are  few,  being  of  an 
editorial  character. 

The  main  sources  of  Samuel  are  supposed  by  some  scholars 
to  be  a  part  of  the  Prophetic  (JE)  series  of  the  Hexateuch, 
but  as  in  the  case  of  the  same  theory  in  reference  to  the 
book  of  Judges,  not  all  are  agreed  as  to  its  probability.^  On 
the  fact  that  the  material  can  very  clearly  be  separated  into 
earher  and  later  narratives,  there  is  great  unanimity  of 
opinion,  and  to  this  extent  the  sources  are  indicated  in  the 
outline  given  of  the  Biblical  material  (pp.  53  f.,  74  ff.).  On 
the  question  of  a  further  analysis  of  these  two  main  divi- 
sions of  the  subject-matter  into  different  sources  there  is 
considerable  variation  of  view  at  present. ^ 

Much  of  the  older  material,  on  account  of  its  manifest 
accuracy,  evidently  belongs  to  a  time  soon  after  the  events 
described,  and  so  may  be  dated  as  early  as  the  tenth  cen- 
tury B.C. 

Cf.,  for  example,  2  Sam.,  chaps.  9-20,  which  are  as  fine  a  series 
of  first-hand  historical  narratives  as  can  be  fomid  in  any  literature. 

The  later  stratum  of  narratives  may  be  assigned  approxi- 
mately to  the  ninth  or  eighth  century  B.C.  Note  the  un- 
favorable view  of  the  monarchy  (e.g.  1  Sam.  7,  12)  with 
the  similar  judgment  in  Hosea  (e.g,  13 :  11). 

These  ages  are  given  approximately,  as  it  is  impossible  to  date 
any  literary  production  exactly  until  after  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century  b.c. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  such  references  in  the  older  series  of  nar- 

*  Cf.,  for  example,  H.  P.  Smith,  Sam.  xxii.     Kennedy,  Sam.  119  f. 

2  Cf .  the  analyses  into  different  sources  by  Stenning  in  HDB,  iv.  3846 ; 
of  Kittel  in  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  22  ff.,  43  ff. ;  Kautzsch,  LOT,  21,  25  ff., 
178  ff. ;  Kennedy,  Sam.  14  ff.,  25  ff.,  32,  etc. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE   JUDGES  49 

ratives  as,  ''Ziklag  pertaineth  unto  the  kings  of  Judah  unto  this 
day"  (1  S.  27  :  6  ;  cf.  30  :  25 ;  2  S.  6  :  8),  may  imply  a  time  con^ 
siderably  later  than  the  division  of  the  Kingdom.  Some  scholars 
bring  the  dates,  accordingly,  of  these  two  main  groups  of  histor- 
ical material  down  several  centuries  later  than  the  time  of  their 
composition  given  above.  Thus  Kent,  whose  two  main  divisions 
are  the  ^' early  Judean  Saul  and  David  narratives,"  and  the  ''later 
Ephraimite  Samuel  narratives,"  assigns  the  first  to  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat,  876-851  b.c.  ;  the  second  between  c.  735  and  621  B.C. 
Cf.  Gray's  date  for  the  older  group  =  ''as  early  as,  or  even  con- 
siderably earher  than,  c.  800  b.c."  and  the  younger  group  "as 
late  as,  or  later  than,  Hosea  (c.  750-740  b.c.)."  ^ 

It  thus  will  be  seen  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  historical 
narratives  of  the  books  of  Samuel  belongs  to  a  relatively 
early  date.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  books  existed 
practically  in  their  present  form  (exclusive  of  the  R°  and 
R^  additions),  at  least  as  early  as  700  B.C.  and  possibly 
earlier. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  narratives  in  1  Sam.  1-7  alone 
relate  to  the  period  of  the  Judges.  The  remainder  of  the 
material  belongs  to  the  period  of  the  United  Kingdom.^ 

1  Cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  10  f.     Gray,  Introd.  73. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  1-2  Samuel, 
LOT,  172  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  89  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  180  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  21,  25  ff.,  29,  40,  43  ff.,  95  f.,  120,  236  ff.  HDB,  iv.  282  ff.  (Sten- 
ning).  EBi,  iv.  4274  ff.  (Stade) ;  cf.  ii.  2079  ff.  (Moore).  Introds.  m 
Comms.  on  Sam.,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (H.  P.  Smith) ;  Cen.  B.  (Kennedy). 
McFadyen,  Introd.  84  ff.  McFadyen,  Hists.  94  f.,  139  ff.  Gray,  Introd. 
66  ff .  Moore,  LOT,  90  ff.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  5  f .,  10  ff.,  51  ff.  Kent, 
United  Kingd.  101  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  22  ff.  Wade,  0.  T.  Hist. 
9.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  71,  90.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  57  f.,  73  f., 
386  f.  (§§919,  935,  1361).  Cheyne,  Aids,  etc.,  1-126.  Sanders,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  12  f.,  89  f.,  202.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  108  f.,  34  f.  Fowler,  Hist. 
Lit.,  etc.,  47  ff.,  205  ff.,  255  f. 


V.  B.  Narratives  and  Literature  of  the  Period  of  the 
Judges,  Chronologically  Outlined,  c.  1190  (?)-c.  1050 
or  1040  (?)  B.C.  =  Judges  2:6-21:25;  (Ruth?);  1  Samuel 
1-7. 

A.     The  Period  of  the  Judges  Proper 

i.  Sources  for  the  history  of  the  Judges  proper  =  Judges  2 : 6- 
16:31. 

ii.   Literary  productions. 

a.  The  Song  of  Deborah,  Judg.  5. 

h.  The  Fable  of  Jotham,  Judg.  9  :  8-20  (?).i 

iii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources  and  literary  productions. 

a.  As  has  been  noticed  in  the  introductory  notes  (pp.  46  f.)  the 
main  contents  of  these  chapters  are  Prophetic  narratives.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  more  important  sections  considered  by 
scholars  to  be  the  result  of  compilation :  — 

(a)  The  pre-Deuteronomic  ( =  Prophetic)  material  found  in 
2:6-3:  6.  Note  (a)  2:6-9  =  Josh.  24  :  28-31 ;  (b)  2:  20-22 
has  a  different  subject  from  2:  11-19;  (c)  vs.  23  is  not  a  strict 
chronological  sequence  of  vss.  20-22.  For  the  Deut.  vss.  in  2  :  6- 
3 :  6,  cf.  below,  n.  b. 

(b)  Chaps.  6-8  give  evidence  of  compilation,  though  there  is 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  demarcation  of  the  sources. 
Moore's  division  is  as  follows:  J  =  6:2-6  (in  part),  11-24,  34; 
7:1,  9-11,  13-15,  16-20  (pitchers  and  torches  account),  21,  226 
(in  part);  8:4-21,  24-27a  (substantially),  30-32.  E  =6:2-6 
(in  part),  7-10,  25-32,  33,  36-40,  35a;  7:2-8,  16-20  (trumpet 
account),  22a,  226  (in  part),  23  (?),  24  f . ;  8:1-3,  22-23  (?),  29. 
The  undefined  vss.  in  the  above  analysis  Moore  considers  editorial. ^ 

(c)  It  is  thought  by  some  scholars  that  there  is  a  duphcation 
of  stories  in  chap.  9,  viz.  vss.  22-25,  42-45  =  one  account;  and 
vss.  26-41  =  another. 

b.  The  following  is  the  Deuteronomic  (R°,  D^)  element  in  these 
chaps.:  2:6-3:6  [in  the  main,  espec.  2:7,  11  f.,  14  (or  145)- 
15,  (16-17?),  18  f. ;   3  :  5  f.  (?)] ;   3  :  7-11  (largely),  12-15a,  29  f. ; 

*  For  other  literature  which  may  have  had  its  origin  in  this  period,  cf. 
p.  54,  iv. 

2  Cf.  Moore,  Judg.  (Int.  Grit.),  175  fif.,  229. 

50 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   PERIOD   OF   THE   JUDGES       51 

4 : 1-3,  23  f. ;  5 :  31c ;  6:1,  (2-6),  7-10  (?) ;  8  :  276,  28  (or  286), 
33-35  ;  10  :  6-16  (incorporating  older  material),  17  f.  (?) ;  13  :  1 ; 
14:46  (?);  15:20;  16:31c.  For  variant  analyses  cf.  Comms., 
Introds.  and  Bible  Diets. 

c.  The  followdng  portions  are  considered  to  have  been  omitted 
by  the  Deuteronomic  editor  (R^)  and  restored  later  by  the  Priestly 
editor  (R^),  3:31;  10:1-5;  12:8-15.  The  Song  of  Deborah, 
chap.  5  (cf.  below,  n.  e)  may  have  been  inserted  by  this  editor, 
who  added  vs.  1.  For  other  vss.  (editorial)  attributed  to  R^  by 
different  scholars,  cf .  p.  267,  k ;  Comms.,  Introds.  and  Bible  Diets. 

No  traces  of  the  Deuteronomic  editor  are  found  in  chap.  9. 
The  lesson  of  the  story,  vss.  24,  56  f.,  is  not  that  of  R°  in  2  :  11  ff. 
The  explanation  generally  given  is  that  the  story  was  omitted  by 
BP  but  was  subsequently  restored  by  R^. 

d.  11:  12-28  is  generally  regarded  by  scholars  as  an  editorial 
passage,  possibly  by  R*^^ ;  though  by  some  assigned  to  E.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  (a)  it  forms  a  reply  to  Moabites  (cf.  vss.  17  f.) 
not  the  Ammonites  (cf.  vs.  13) ;  cf.  (6)  reference  to  Chemosh,  the 
national  god  of  the  Moabites  (vs.  24) ;  and  (c)  the  hst  of  Moabite 
cities  (vss.  25  f.). 

e.  The  Song  of  Deborah,  Judg.  5,  is  almost  universally  admitted 
by  scholars  to  be  contemporary  with  the  events  celebrated.  It 
may  well  have  been  composed  by  Deborah  herself,  though  this 
view  is  not  now  so  commonly  held  as  formerly.  It  is  frequently 
described  as  the  oldest  extant  piece  of  Hebrew  literature.  Cf., 
however,  the  Song  of  Lamech,  Gen.  4  :  23  f .  (p.  30,  ii.  d,).  From  the 
absence  of  Deuteronomic  traces,  and  on  account  of  the  presence 
of  words  and  idioms  apparently  characteristic  of  post-exiUc 
Hebrew,  it  has  been  inferred  that  this  poem  did  not  belong  either 
to  the  original  (Prophetic)  book  of  Judges,  or  the  later  Deutero- 
nomic revision,  but  was  derived  from  some  source,  which  we  can- 
not now  determine,  and  inserted  by  R^  (who  probably  added  vs.  1), 
i.e.  that  the  poem  was  revised  and  inserted  by  a  late  Priestly  com- 
piler. Possibly  it  may  have  been  preserved  in  the  collection  either 
of  'Hhe  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah,"  or  'Hhe  Book  of  Jashar'' 
(cf.  pp.  40  f.,  iv.  6. ;  43,  iv.  6.). 

/.  The  Fable  of  Jotham,  Judg.  9  : 8-20,  belongs  to  his  day,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities  (cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  5,  169).  Others 
consider  the  date  uncertain,  e.g.  Duhm  (EBi,  iii,  3798). 

iv.   Chronological  notes, 

a.  The  chronology  o£  the  period  of  the  Judges  is  involved  in 
much  uncertainty.  The  date  of  the  beginning  depends  upon  the 
time  to  which  the  conquest  of  Western  Palestine  is  assigned,  but 
as  has  already  been  noticed  (pp.  42  f .  iv.  a.)  this  cannot  be  determined 


52        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

with  certainty.  Assuming  c.  1200-1190  b.c.  as  the  date  of  the 
Conquest  the  length  of  the  period  of  the  Judges  is  equally  con- 
jectural. For  while  the  book  of  Judges  furnishes  much  chrono- 
logical data,  inserted  by  the  Deuteronomist,  scholars  are  practi- 
cally agreed  that  it  is  impossible  to  construct  an  exact  chronology 
from  them.     For  reasons,  see  Ap.  C,  p.  343,  d. 

The  termination  of  this  period  can  be  derived  with  more  cer- 
tainty. By  working  backward  from  well-estabhshed  dates  later 
on  in  Hebrew  history,  the  death  of  Saul  may  be  placed  approxi- 
mately c.  1020  B.C.  or  1000  B.C.,  which  would  bring  the  judgeship 
of  Samuel  c.  1050  or  1040  b.c.  McCurdy  considers  the  length  of 
this  whole  period  not  much  over  a  century ;  ^  others  assign  from 
two  to  two  and  a  half  centuries  to  it.^ 

6.  Some  of  the  other  dates  assigned  to  events  in  this  period  by 
McCurdy  are  as  follows :  judgeship  of  Deborah  and  Barak, 
c.  1130  or  1120  B.C. ;  of  Gideon,  c.  1100  B.C. ;  of  Jephthah,  c.  1080 
B.C.  (HPM,  iii.  p.  434).  Kautzsch  dates  the  corresponding  events 
earher,  viz.  c.  1250;  c.  1150;  and  c.  1120-1110  b.c.  He  assigns 
c.  1120  B.C.  to  the  rule  of  Abimelech  (his  LOT,  169). 


B.     The  Period  of  the  Judges,  Supplementary 

i.  Sources  for  the  supplementary  history  of  the  Judges  =  Judg. 
17-21.     (Ruth?) 

ii.    Composition  of  the  historical  sources. 

a.  Chaps.  17-21,  which  form  appendices  to  the  book  of  Judges, 
are  regarded  as  portions  of  the  early  (Prophetic)  narratives, 
omitted  by  the  Deuteronomist  (R°)  and  afterwards  re-edited  in 
different  degrees  and  restored  by  R^.  Cf,  p.  47.  Note  the  form 
and  spirit  of  the  Priestly  writers,  especially  the  Chronicler,  in  the 
ideahzing  element  introduced  in  20  :  1-21 :  14.  Konig  (HDB, 
ii.  819a)  hmits  this  to  the  numbers  (e.g.  20:  17,  etc.).  The  more 
common  view  is  that  it  extends  to  the  description  of  Israel's 
"spontaneous  and  united  action"  (cf.  20 : 1,  8,  11 ;  21 :  5,  10,  13, 
16).     See  Comms.,  Introds.,  etc. 

b.  For  evidences  of  possible  compilation  in  these  chapters,  cf. 
Comms.  and  Introds. 

iii.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  events  described  in  chaps.  17-18  are  thought  by  many 
scholars  to  belong  with  probability  to  the  early  part  of  this 
period.     The  grounds  of  this  conclusion  are :    (a)  the   historical 

1  Cf.  HPM,  iii.  pp.  32,  n.  1,  45,  434  (§§  879,  n.  1 ;   898). 

2  Cf.  McFadyen,  Introd.  79 ;  Wade,  0.  T.  Hist.  195  f. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   PERIOD   OF   THE   JUDGES       53 

point  of  view  which  is  parallel  to  Josh.  19 :  47  and  Judg.  1 :  34 ; 
(6)  the  age  is  that  of  the  grandson  of  Moses,  cf .  18 :  30,  R.  V. ; 
and  (c)  the  events  of  the  chapters  are  presupposed  in  5  :  17,  though 
this  point  is  disputed.  Cf.  also  the  position  of  chaps.  17-21  in 
Josephus,  where  the  order  following  Judg.  1  is  chaps.  18-21,  17-18 ; 
cf.  Jos.  Ant.  V.  ii.  §§  8-12  and  iii.  §  1. 

b.  The  events  at  the  basis  of  the  narratives  in  chaps.  19-21 
also  are  considered  by  many  scholars  to  belong  with  probability 
to  a  date  soon  after  the  settlement  in  Western  Palestine.  This 
is  seen  by  the  fact  that  when  Saul  was  elected  king  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  had  evidently  recovered  from  the  punishment  visited 
upon  it,  and  its  sin  had  long  since  been  overlooked.    (1  Sam.  9  ff.) 

c.  Scholars  who  consider  that  the  story  in  Gen.  34  reflects  a 
conflict  between  the  tribes  of  Simeon  and  Levi,  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  Canaanites  of  Shechem,  on  the  other,  place  it  chronologi- 
cally in  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Palestine,  or  in  the  early  period 
of  the  Judges.^ 

d.  While  the  form  of  the  book  of  Ruth  is  now  regarded  by  most 
scholars  as  late,  it  is  possible  that  the  leading  details  of  the  story 
were  ''current  in  tradition  from  quite  early  times."  For  this 
reason  it  may  be  included  in  this  period  as  well  as  in  the  later 
time  to  which  it  strictly  belongs.^ 

C.     The  Judgeship  of  Samuel,     c.  1050  ff.  (or  1040  ff.)  (?)  b.c. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  the  judgeship  of  Samuel  =  1  Sam.  1-7. 
ii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources  {and  literature  embodied). 

a.  Earher  Prophetic  narratives  (E?)  =  4  :  16-7  :  1  (as  a  whole). 
This  section,  in  which  the  fortunes  of  the  Ark  are  the  main  theme, 
is  considered  by  most  scholars  to  have  been  written  earlier  than 
1 :  1-4 :  la ;  the  fate  of  Eh's  sons  being  connected  with  the  fate 
of  the  Ark.  1 :  1-4  :  la  (as  a  whole)  was  prefixed  by  a  later  writer 
as  an  introduction,  giving  the  previous  history  of  EH  and  facts 
connected  with  the  early  life  and  calhng  of  Samuel,  which  ex- 
plained his  importance  as  a  prophet.     Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds. 

b.  Later  Prophetic  narratives  (E^?)  =  chaps.  1;  2:11-26, 
(27-36?);  3:1-10,  (11-14),  15-4 :1a;  7:2-17  (or  =  R°;  cf. 
below,  n.  c.).^ 

1  Cf.  Comms  and  Introds.  in  loc.  Paton,  Early  Hist.  Syria,  etc., 
151  f.  CorniU,  Hist.  Isr.  46  f.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  69  f.,  etc.  Cf. 
contra,  Kittel,  Scient.  Study  O.  T.  159  f. 

2  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  310  ff.  Thatcher,  Judg.  177.  See  also 
pp.  249  ff.  of  this  vol. 

3  For  the  more  detailed  analysis  of  this  section  by  Kautzsch,  cf .  p.  152, 
iv.  e.  (d). 


54        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

c.  The  following  sections  belong  to  the  Deuteronomic  editor 
(R°)  =  2  :  27-36  (or  at  least  it  is  a  Deut.  expansion) ;  3  :  11-14  (?). 
7 :  2-17  is  considered  by  a  number  of  scholars  to  be  HP  as  it  con- 
tains the  same  descriptions  of  repentance  and  deliverance  which 
are  found  in  the  Deut.  sections  in  Judges  (pp.  45  f.). 

d.  A  number  of  minor  verses  are  considered  editorial,  e.g. 
6 :  15,  17-18a  =  R^.  For  other  editorial  vss.  cf.  Comms.  and 
Introds.     See  p.  267,  v.  k. 

e.  2 :  1-10,  though  attributed  to  Hannah,  is  generally  held  by 
scholars  to  belong  to  a  later  date,  for  the  following  reasons : 
(a)  the  presumption  that  the  monarchy  is  estabhshed,  vs.  10; 
(5)  the  theme  is  national  success  rather  than  individual  thanks- 
giving (vss.  4,  7  f.,  10) ;  and  (c)  affinities  in  language  and  style 
with  late  psalms.  The  song  is  supposed  to  have  been  inserted 
here  by  a  compiler,  who  added  vs.  la,  as  a  fitting  poem  to  express 
the  feehngs  of  Hannah,  probably  on  the  basis  of  vs.  5.  Its  exact 
date  is  uncertain;  some  placing  it  in  the  days  of  the  monarchy, 
others  in  the  post-exiHc  period.  See  Comms.  and  Introds.  Cf. 
also  this  vol.,  p.  265,  iv.  6.  e. 

iii.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  Authorities  are  quite  generally  agreed  in  dating  the  judgeship 
of  Samuel  approximately  c.  1050  or  1040  B.C.  This  conclusion 
is  reached  by  working  backwards  from  the  ascertained  dates  of 
later  times.     Cf.  pp.  51  f.,  iv.  a. 

iv.   Other  literature  possibly  belonging  to  the  period  of  the  Judges. 

a.  The  Book  of  the  Covenant  [Ex.  20:22-23:19,  (20-33); 
pp.  37  f.,  iv.  b.],  codified  in  this  period  according  to  some  author- 
ities.^ 

b.  The  Blessing  of  Jacob,  Gen.  49 : 2-27,  in  part,  according  to 
some  scholars.^ 

1  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  59  (§  920).  See,  however,  this  vol.,  p.  84, 
V.  g. 

2  Cf.  Skinner,  Gen.  in  loc.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  40  f.  Schmidt, 
Poets,  310,  etc.    See,  however,  this  vol.,  pp.  72  f. ;  83,  v.  a. 


VI.  A.  The  Period  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Introductory 
AND  Explanatory  Notes  to  the  History  and  Literature 
OF  this  Period 

The  history  and  hterature  relating  to  the  period  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  found  in  1  Samuel  8-2  Samuel  24 ; 
1  Kings  1-11;  1  Chronicles  10-2  Chronicles  9.  Literature 
originating  in  this  period  may  include  poems  {e.g.  Gen.  49, 
etc.)  and  collections  of  poems  {e.g.  the  Book  of  Jashar,  etc.)/ 
possibly  some  psalms  and  proverbs  also.^ 

1.   Historical  Writings  Relating  to  this  Period 

A.  1  Samuel  8-2  Samuel  24.^ 

B.  The  Books  of  Kings.  The  books  of  Kings  (which 
originally  formed  one  undivided  book  ^) ,  were  also  derived 
from  different  sources,  like  the  other  historical  books  thus 
far  considered  (cf.  pp.  13  ff.,  45  ff.),  giving  evidence  espe- 
cially of  the  prophetic  and  Deuteronomic  points  of  view  and 
interests.  The  Priestly  element  is  of  very  limited  extent, 
consisting  of  occasional  inserted  (redactional)  words,  phrases 
or  verses. 

The  hand  of  the  Deuteronomic  writers  (R°  and  R°^)  is 
much  more  marked,  however,  in  Kings  than  in  Judges  and 
Samuel.  In  the  last  two  books  mentioned  their  office  in 
both  instances  was  to  re-edit  a  work  already  compiled.  In 
Kings,  on  the  other  hand,  no  such  completed  literary  product 
existed.     The  Deuteronomic  writer  was  the  actual  composer 

1  See  p.  74,  ii. ;  p.  76,  ii. ;  p.  78,  ii. ;  pp.  83  f.,  v.  Cf.  also  pp.  79-81, 
ii.-iii.  (Davidic  psalms) ;   p.  81,  ii.  (Solomonic  proverbs,  etc.). 

2  Qf_  introductory  notes,  pp.  68  ff. ;  116  ff. 

3  For  notes  on  the  structure  and  sources  of  the  books  of  Samuel,  and 
for  1  Sam.  1-7,  see  Period  of  the  Judges,  pp.  47  ff.,  53  f. 

*  The  division  of  Bangs  was  made  by  the  LXX,  the  two  portions  being 
designated,  the  third  and  fourth  books  of  Kings  or  Kingdonis  respec- 
tively (1  and  2  Samuel  being  known  as  1  and  2  Kings  or  Kingdoms). 
The  Vulg.  and  A.  V.  combine  both  titles ;  cf .  A.  V.  titles  of  1  and  2  Kings. 
This  division  of  Kings  was  adopted  in  later  times  in  the  printed  editions 
of  Hebrew  texts. 

55 


56        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

of  large  sections,  deriving  and  compiling  his  history  from 
different  sources,  much  as  the  historian  of  to-day  does,  to 
which  he  added  his  characteristic  moral  and  religious  lessons. 

While  this  statement  holds  true  of  the  books  as  a  whole,  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  there  are  certain  exceptions,  chief  of  which  are 
the  stories  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  found  in  1  Ki.  17-2  Ki.  13,  which 
were  incorporated  by  R^  with  practically  no  editing.  The  same 
is  true  to  a  less  extent  of  the  Prophetic  tales  of  the  Northern  King- 
dom [1  Ki.  20;   22:  1-28,  etc.     See  pp.  57  f.,  (d),  (e)]. 

The  characteristic  religious  feature  introduced  by  R^  is  the 
judgment  expressed  upon  each  king  in  reference  to  his  undivided 
loyalty  to  Jehovah  (cf.  on  Solomon,  1  Ki.  11 :  1-4,  33  ff.).  The 
basis  of  judgment  especially  emphasized  is  the  king's  attitude 
towards  the  central  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  which  is  one  of  the 
characteristic  laws  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  e.g.  Deut.  12  :  Iff. 
Hence  worship  at  the  ''high  places"  in  Judah  is  condemned  (1  Ki. 

14  :  22  f . ;  15  :  14 ;  22  :  43,  etc.),  while  worship  at  the  shrines  of 
the  Northern  Kingdom,  which  is  regarded  as  schismatic,  is  un- 
sparingly denounced  (1  Ki.  12  :  28  ff. ;  15  :  26 ;  16  :  2  ff. ;  2  Ki. 
17  :  7-18,  21-23,  etc.). 

The  large  amount  of  material  which  bears  marks  of  this 
Deuteronomic,  editorial  shaping,  in  different  parts  of  the 
books  can  easily  be  seen  for  instance  by  referring  to  1  Ki. 

15  : 9  ff.  and  vss.  23  ff.,  where  the  opening  and  closing  formulae 
of  the  reigns,  as  well  as  the  religious  estimates  and  judgments 
expressed  are  Deuteronomic.  The  work  of  the  same  writer 
is  also  found  very  often  in  the  ampUfication  and  adaptation 
of  the  speeches  included  in  his  narrative  (cf .  1  Ki.  8  :  12  ff . : 
ll:32ff.,etc.). 

In  general,  in  the  distinctively  Deuteronomic  sections  the  his- 
tory given  is  a  mere  epitome  of  events  (cf.  in  1  Ki.  15 :  9  ff., 
vss.  12  f.,  16-22  illustrate  this  fact).  This  was  because  the  com- 
piler's interest  was  primarily  moral  and  religious. 

Some  of  the  characteristic  phrases  of  R^  in  Kings  are :  (a)  to 
''keep  the  charge  of  Jehovah"  (1  Ki.  2:3;  cf.  Deut.  11:1); 
(6)  to  "keep  (or  execute)  his  statutes,  etc."  (1  Ki.  2  :  3 ;  3  :  14,  etc. ; 
cf.  Deut.  7:11;  17 :  18  ff.) ;  (c)  to  "do  that  which  is  (or  was) 
evil  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah"  (1  Ki.  11 :  6  and  frequently ;  cf.  Deut. 
9  :  18  ;  17  :  2,  etc.) ;  and  (d)  to  "do  that  which  is  (or  was)  right  in 
the  eyes  of  Jehovah"  (1  Ki.  15:5,  11,  etc.;  cf.  Deut.  12:25; 
13  :  18,  etc.),  etc.^ 

»  Cf.  for  fuU  lists,  LOT,  200  ff.     HDD,  ii.  859  ff. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM     57 

Besides  (a)  ''the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 
Israel,"  and  (6)  ''the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings 
of  Judah, "  which  have  been  referred  to  previously  for  illus- 
tration (cf.  p.  2),^  other  original  sources  employed  by  the 
Deuteronomic  compiler  were  (c)  "the  Book  of  the  Acts  of 
Solomon"  (1  Ki.  11 :  41)  for  1  Ki.  3-11. 

"The  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  may  have  been  a  part  of 
a  work  dealing  with  the  kings  of  Judah.  It  is  also  possible  that 
the  two  preceding  sources  referred  to  and  this  were  parts  of  the 
same  historical  series.  It  seems  more  probable,  however,  that 
they  were  separate  works,  especially  the  two  ''Chronicles."  In 
support  of  this  conclusion  note  the  recording  of  distinct  facts  as 
part  of  the  same  event  described  (which  are  quoted  apparently 
from  these  sources),  according  to  their  particular  bearing  on  one 
or  the  other  of  the  two  kingdoms,  e.g.  Hazael's  campaign  (2  Ki. 
10:32;   13:3;   cf.  12:17ff.). 

From  the  contents  we  find  derived  from  these  sources  a  natural 
inference  is  that  they  were  similar  in  character,  deahng  with  the 
public  and  official  acts  of  the  different  kings.  Only  once  are  the 
sins  of  a  king  mentioned  as  being  recorded  "in  the  Book  of  the 
Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah"  (2  Ki.  21 :  17). 

It  should  be  added  that  these  three  authorities  form  the  fun- 
damental sources  of  the  books  of  Kings. 

(d)  Prophetic  tales  of  which  Elijah  and  Elisha  are  the 
heroes  found  in  1  Ki.  17-2  Ki.  13,  inserted  by  R^  with  httle 
change ;  ^  and  (e)  long  and  graphic  descriptions  of  the  wars 
of  the  Northern  Kingdom  (beginning  with  1  Ki.  20  and 
recurring  at  intervals  as  far  as  2  Ki.  10),  written  also  from 
the  prophetic  standpoint. 

The  stories  relating  to  Elijah  and  Elisha  (designated  by  some 
writers  Pr.,  or  Elijah  =  Pr.  and  Elisha  =  Pr^. ;  by  others  =  EL), 
are  generally  considered  by  scholars  to  have  been  independent  of 
the  two  Chronicles  of  the  kingdoms.     This  seems  evident  from  the 

1  Cf.  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  a  few  reigns  of  the  Divided  Kingdom 
no  reference  is  made  to  either  of  these  sources ;  of  Judah,  —  Athaliah 
(2  Ki.  11),  Jehoahaz  (23:31-33),  Jehoiachin  (24:8  f.)  and  Zedekiah 
(25  :  1  ff.) ;   of  Israel,  —  Joram  (2  Ki.  3  :  1-3)  and  Hoshea  (17  :  1-6). 

2  Notice  how  these  longer  sections  incorporated  by  R^  are  adapted 
and  adjusted  to  the  material,  which  was  excerpted  by  him  from  the 
"Chronicles,"  and  which  especially  bears  his  marks;  e.g.  1  Ki.  17  pre- 
supposes 16 :  30-33  ;  and  2  Ki.  9  in  like  manner  2  Ki.  8 :  28  f .  Cf .  Cornill, 
Introd.  210. 


58        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

vivid  and  dramatic  character  of  these  narratives.^  While  some 
hold  that  both  portions,  one  relating  to  Elijah,  and  the  other 
to  Elisha,  were  the  work  of  the  same  writer,  it  seems  more  probable 
that  they  belong  to  at  least  two,  if  not  three,  sources.  They 
undoubtedly  originated  in  the  Northern  Kingdom  (cf .  the  explan- 
atory clause  1  Ki.  19:3,  ''which  belongeth  to  Judah,"  which 
indicates  their  origin  outside  of  Judah). 

The  Prophetic  (=  war)  tales,  including  the  R^  additions,  are 
found  in  the  following  sections,  1  Ki.  20 ;  22 : 1-38 ;  2  Ki.  3 ; 
6 :  24-7 :  20 ;  9-10.  Of  these  chapters  a  part,  however,  is  as- 
signed by  some  scholars  to  the  ERsha  sources,  e.g.  2  Ki.  3 : 4  ff. ; 
6  :  24-7  :  20  by  Kent.^  From  the  manifest  interest  in  the  North- 
ern Kingdom  this  source  undoubtedly  had  its  origin  there.  By 
some  writers  it  is  given  the  symbol  E,  as  possibly  a  part  of  the  E 
document  of  the  Hexateuch  continued  to  later  times. 

The  difference  between  the  Elijah  and  Elisha  tales  on  the 
one  hand  and  this  Prophetic  source  on  the  other  consists  in  this ; 
that  in  the  former,  prophetic,  biographical  details  and  events 
(connected  with  religious  reformation  and  social  questions  for 
instance)  are  emphasized;  while  in  the  latter  political  matters 
centring  in  the  kings  and  kingdom  are  the  prominent  interests, 
even  though  the  figure  of  the  prophet  is  conspicuous.  Elijah, 
however,  is  not  mentioned  (cf.  Micaiah,  1  Ki.  22:8  ff.).  For 
the  Deuteronomic  editor's  method  in  introducing  these  sources, 
cf.  above,  pp.  56,  57,  n.  ^ 

(/)  Possibly  the  Temple  archives  may  have  furnished  the 
details  relating  to  the  Temple  and  ritual  in  some  sections 
(e.g.  2  Ki.  11 : 4  ff. ;  12 : 4-16 ;  16  :  10-18 ;  23  : 3  ff. ;  cf.  also 
1  Ki.  6-7). 

Different  views  are  held  in  reference  to  the  Temple  sources. 
Some  {e.g.  Driver)^  think  that  possibly  the  compiler  used  such 
directly.  Others  {e.g.  Kent)  ^  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  writers 
of  ''the  Acts  of  Solomon"  and  the  two  ''Chronicles"  may  have 
originally  incorporated  them  in  their  works,  R^  thus  using  them 
indirectly.  Others  again  question  if  there  was  such  a  Temple 
history.  Note  (a)  the  greater  fidelity  of  laymen  than  the  priesthood 
which  is  chronicled  in  2  Ki.  12 :  1-16,  and  (6)  the  introduction  of 
the  new  altar  of  Ahaz,  recorded  without  protest  in  2  Ki.  16 :  10-18. 

1  Cf.  especially  for  difference  of  phraseology  and  point  of  view,  LOT, 
188  f.,  194  f.     HDB,  ii.  8666  (Burney). 

2  Cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  234  ff. 

3  Cf.  LOT,  189,  196. 

*  Cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  15  ff. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM      59 

Such  features,  it  is  felt,  would  hardly  have  been  the  work  of 
priestly  writers. 

1  Kings,  chaps.  1-2,  which  in  the  main  have  the  same 
general  characteristics  as  2  Samuel,  chaps  9-20  are  by  com- 
mon assent  assigned  to  the  same  source. 

In  reference  to  these  different  sources,  which  were  drawn 
upon  in  the  composition  of  oiu*  canonical  books  of  Kings, 
it  may  reasonably  be  inferred  that  to  a  large  extent  they 
represent  either  contemporary  documents  of  different  kinds, 
such  as  historical  annals  or  stories,  or  were  based  upon  such. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  their  probable  chronologi- 
cal order  with  approximate  dates  :  (a)  ^'  the  Book  of  the  Acts 
of  Solomon,"  c.  800  B.C.,  though  possibly  later  in  that  century. 

From  the  apparent  similarity  of  "  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solo- 
mon" to  ''the  Books  of  the  Chronicles  of  Israel  and  Judah"  (as 
inferred  from  the  contents  derived  from  them),  its  date  may  rea- 
sonably be  placed  in  approximately  the  same  time  as  the  earlier 
of  these  [cf.  (d),  below],  though  possibly  a  little  before.  Cf.  Kent 
=  not  earlier  than  800  b.c.^ 

(6)  The  Elijah  stories  may  well  date  from  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, or  perhaps  not  long  after  800  B.C. 

Two  facts  especially  may  be  mentioned  as  bearing  on  the  date 
of  the  Elijah  tales :  (a)  the  element  to  some  extent  of  idealization 
in  the  description  of  the  prophet  suggests  a  generation  or  two 
later  than  his  ministry,  which  belonged  to  the  reigns  of  Ahab, 
Ahaziah  and  Joram,  875-c.  850  b.c.  ;  and  (h)  the  fact  that  worship 
at  the  northern  shrines  is  not  denounced,  as  by  Amos  and  Hosea, 
points  to  a  date  before  these  prophets,  i.e.  before  c.  750  b.c.^ 

(c)  The  Prophetic  narratives  (1  Ki.  20,  etc.)  probably 
originated  about  the  same  time  as  the  Elijah  stories. 

Kent,  who  designates  1  Ki.  20  and  22  : 1-38  as  ''Ahab  History," 
dates  them  earlier  than  the  Elijah  stories,  viz.  between  850  and 
800  B.C.  on  account  of  the  vividness  and  fidelity  of  their  port  ray  als.^ 

(d)  ^'The  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Israel" 

1  Cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  16. 

2  See  W.  R.  Harper,  Amos,  etc.,  xxxiv  for  other  variant  dates  suggested 
by  different  scholars. 

3  Cf.  Kent,  Ibid.,  219  f. 


60        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

was  likely  completed  soon  after  the  fall  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom,  722  (721)  B.C. 

These  ''Chronicles"  of  the  two  kingdoms  are  probably  not  to 
be  identified  with  the  official  records,  though  that  view  is  held. 
The  question  is  not  an  important  one,  for  these  works  seem  to 
have  been  based  on  trustworthy  sources ;  possibly,  as  Kautzsch 
concludes,  ''taken from  a  kind  of  Chronicles,  begun  early  in  both 
kingdoms,  and  afterwards  continued  dowTi  to  a  late  period, 
the  work  of  continuation  being  taken  up  by  one  writer  after 
another."  ^ 

(e)  The  Elisha  stories  seem  further  removed  from  the 
times  which  they  describe  than  the  corresponding  Elijah 
narratives,  and  so  they  are  dated  by  some  in  the  eighth  by 
others  in  the  seventh  century  b.c. 

(/)  "The  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah,'' 
since  the  last  reference  to  it  (2  Ki.  24 :  5)  belongs  to  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim,  608-597  B.C.,  was  completed  c.  597  B.C.,  or 
at  least  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  586  b.c. 

Different  views  are  held  in  reference  to  the  dating  of  "  the  Book 
of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah."  Some  think  that  the 
main  body  of  the  work  may  have  been  completed  as  early  as 
Hezekiah's  reign,  c.  719  (?)  ff.  b.c,  the  material  of  subsequent 
reigns  being  added  as  supplements.  In  favor  of  this  conclusion 
are  these  facts :  (a)  the  absence  of  the  Deuteronomic  influence 
in  the  material  derived  from  this  source ;  and  (5)  a  date  as  late 
as  c.  600  B.C.  brings  it  too  near  to  the  time  of  R^.  According  to 
this  view  the  reference  in  2  Ki.  24 :  5  may  be  a  mistaken  imita- 
tion by  R^.2 

The  latest  event  recorded  in  these  books  is  in  561  B.C. 
(cf.  2  Ki.  25  :  27//Jer.  52  :  31),  which  brings  their  compilation 
down  to  a  time  subsequent  to  that  year,  though  perhaps  not 
many  years  later. 

Some  scholars  conclude  from  the  expression  "all  the  days  of 
his  (i.e.  Jehoiachin's)  life"  (2  Ki.  25:30)  that  the  work  was  not 
completed  till  after  his  death,  which  might  bring  its  date  toward 
the  end  of  the  Exile.  Cf.  "until  the  day  of  his  death"  Jer.  52: 
34.3 

1  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  71. 

2  Cf.  on  this  view  Bennett,  Introd.  97  f . 

3  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  8616  (Burney).  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  386  (§  1360). 
Skinner,  Ki.  22  f. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM     61 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  a  number  of  references  in  the 
Deuteronomic  sections,  which  imply  that  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  (cf.  the  Temple  and  Davidic  dynasty)  is  still  in 
existence  [e.g.  1  Ki.  11 :  36  ;  cf.  8  :  15-53  ;  9:3;  15  : 4  :  2  Ki. 
8  :  19  (//2  Chr.  21:7);  17  :  18,  21-23]. 

Cf.  also  the  expression  ''unto  this  day,"  IKi.  8:8;  9:21; 
12  :  19  and  especially  2  Ki.  8  :  22 ;  16  :  6  and  17  :  34  from  which 
the  inference  is  the  same.  This  is  the  usual  view  taken,  though 
McCurdy  maintains  that  the  ''day"  in  these  passages  is  not  that 
of  the  compiler  but  of  the  authors  of  the  records  cited,  the  compiler 
not  being  careful  in  his  method  of  using  his  sources.^ 

The  conclusion  drawn  from  these  facts  is  that  there  were 
two  Deuteronomic  editions;  one  (R^)  dating  from  the 
closing  years  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  c.  597-586  b.c.  (or 
possibly  c.  600  B.C.)  extending  as  far  as  2  Ki.  23  :  30  or  possi- 
bly 24:1;  and  the  second,  later  and  supplemental  (R°^), 
c.  560  B.C.  or  later,  which  supplied  the  subsequent  historical 
facts  of  the  book,  together  with  some  insertions  in  the  previ- 
ous sections.^ 

The  dates  within  which  the  first  Deuteronomic  editing  must 
come  are  621  B.C.,  i.e.  the  year  of  the  discovery  of  the  Deuter- 
onomic Code,  and  586  b.c.  =  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  If 
"the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  Judah"  was  not  completed  till 
after  597  b.c.  [cf.  above,  p.  60  (/)],  then  R^  must  be  subsequent 
to  that  date. 

Scholars  differ  in  reference  to  the  exact  point  at  which  the 
first  R°  edition  of  Kings  ends.  According  to  some  it  terminates 
with  2  Ki.  23  :  25  {e.g.  McCurdy,  etc.^) ;  some  place  the  conclusion 
at  2  Ki.  23:30  ("presumably"  =  Bumey,^) ;  others  with  2  Ki. 
24:  1  {e.g.  Kautzsch,  Cornill).^ 

The  insertions  attributed  to  R^^  are  such  for  example  as  those 
impljdng  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  the  Exile.  The 
following  are  the  R^-  insertions  according  to  Bumey,  1  Ki.  11 :  39 ; 

1  Cf.  HPM,  iii.  p.  386,  n.  1  (§  1360). 

2  As  there  is  no  reference  in  Kings  to  the  return  from  Exile,  c.  537  b.c, 
it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  editorial  work  of  R^^  -^^s  prior 
to  that  date.  The  fact  that  the  Deut.  Code  and  not  the  Priestly  Code, 
which  began  to  be  codified  probably  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Exile,  is 
the  standard  by  which  the  kings  are  judged  favors  the  same  conclusion 
as  to  date. 

3  Cf.  HPM,  iii.  p.  386  (§  1360). 

4  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  862a. 

^  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  73,  244.     Cornill,  Introd.  218. 


62        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

2  Ki.  17:19,  20;  23:26,  27  and  possibly  1  Ki.  9:7-9;  2  Ki. 
20  :  17-18 ;  21 :  11-15 ;  22  :  15-20.  Cf.  also  the  expression 
''beyond  the  River"  (1  Ki.  4:24,  R.  V.  marg.),  which  is  a  post- 
exihc  designation  of  Syria  (cf.  Ezra  4  :  17 ;  Neh.  2  :  9,  etc.).^ 

Cf.  Skinner's  view  that  R^^  ''also  contributed  a  good  deal  of 
the  hortatory  matter  in  which  the  book  abounds."  ^ 

The  additions  by  Priestly  editors  (R^ )  belong  to  a  still 
later  age;  probably  post-exilic.  As  already  noticed  these 
additions  are  few  in  number.^ 

While  the  chronological  details,  connected  with  the  differ- 
ent reigns,  were  probably  derived  in  the  main  from  'Hhe 
Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  of  Israel,"  the  synchro- 
nistic scheme  followed  in  the  Divided  Kingdom  (cf.  1  Ki.  15 
and  onward)  is  generally  attributed  to  R^^ 

Two  reasons  may  be  given  for  assigning  the  synchronism  to  R^^: 
(a)  it  is  improbable  that  either  Chronicler  would  have  dated 
each  king's  accession  by  the  years  of  the  corresponding  reign  of 
the  other  kingdom,  and  (6)  the  fact  that  the  synchronisms  at 
times  do  not  agree  with  the  chronological  facts  evidently  derived 
from  the  "Chronicles"  by  the  original  R^  editor. 

The  view  of  Skinner  may  be  noted  that  the  synchronisms 
belong  to  a  much  later  date.  He  bases  his  conclusion  on  "the 
remarkable  deviations  found  in  the  LXX,  especially  in  LXX  (L)" 
in  the  synchronisms  compared  with  the  Hebrew  version.^ 

For  the  set  formulae,  including  S5rrLchronistic  details,  in  con- 
nection with  the  beginning  and  close  of  each  reign  of  the  Divided 
Kingdom,  see  1  Ki.  15  and  subsequent  chapters. 

Fortunately  valuable,  supplementary,  chronological  data 
have  been  obtained  from  the  Assyrian  records,  after  that 
nation  came  in  contact  with  Israel  and  Judah,  from  w^hich 
the  dates  of  Biblical  events  in  many  places  can  be  more 
certainly  determined.     Cf.  Ap.  C,  pp.  335  ff.,  344  ff. 

As  previously  noticed  only  chapters  1-11  of  1  Kings  belong 
to  the  period  of  the  United  Kingdom ;  the  remaining  parts 
relate  to  the  Divided  Kingdom.^ 

1  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  8616.  For  a  fuUer  Ust  cf.  EBi,  ii.  2665,  n.  2;  2668. 

2  Cf.  Skinner,  Ki.  21. 

3  For  some  of  the  R^  additions  to  Kings,  cf.  pp.  267  f.,  v.  k.,  and  refs. 
Cf.  also  Cornill,  Introd.  220. 

4  Cf .  Skinner,  Ki.  39. 

6  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Kings, 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED    KINGDOM      63 

C.  The  Books  of  Chronicles.  First  and  Second  Chronicles, 
which  belong  to  the  second  series  of  Old  Testament  historical 
writings  (see  pp.  1  f.),  originally  formed  with  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  a  single  book. 

In  the  Jewish  canon  1  and  2  Chr.  form  one  book;  also  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  one  book.  That  these  four  originally  constituted 
a  single  work  is  inferred  from  (a)  their  style,  standpoint  and 
interests,  which  are  the  same;  also  from  the  fact  (b)  that  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  continue  the  history  from  the  point  at  which  Chron- 
icles ends.  (2  Chr.  ends  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence,  and  Ezra 
1 :  l-3a  is  parallel  to  2  Chr.  36  :  22  f.).  The  division  into  separate 
books  is  due  to  the  LXX.     Note,  however,  the  view  p.  204,  n.  ^. 

The  books  of  Chronicles  were  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  those  specially  interested  not  in  the  political  but  in  the 
reUgious  institutions  of  the  Jewish  people,  i.e.  in  the  priest- 
hood, —  particularly  the  Levites  and  singers,  —  the  Temple 
and  ritual  observances.  (Cf .  1  C.  13  : 1-5 ;  15  : 1-24,  27a ; 
16  : 4-42 ;  chaps.  22-29  (mostly) ;  2  C.  5  :  ll-13a,  etc.  Note 
also  2  C.  17  : 8  f. ;  29  :  34 ;  35  :  3-6,  15,  etc.). 

There  is  also  an  interest  in  the  prophets  in  Chronicles,  it  is 
true,  and  considerable  attention  is  given  to  them,  but  the  con- 
ception of  them  is  a  very  artificial  one,  viz.  as  those  who  '' pointed 
out  the  moral  of  a  situation  .  .  .  now  by  stimulus,  now  again  by 
rebuke"  (cf.  2  C.  12  :  5-8  ;  15  :  1-15  ;  16  :  7-10,  etc.^). 

Note  also  the  mechanical  conception  of  retribution ;  e.g.  1  C. 
10  :  13  f . ;   15  :  13 ;  2  C.  12  :  26 ;   17  :  10,  etc. 

Judah,  with  which  Benjamin  is  associated,  is  considered  the 
true  people  of  God,  in  contrast  to  Israel,  which  is  regarded  as 
an  apostate  kingdom  (cf.  2  C.  25:7).     Hence  Chronicles  is 

LOT,  185  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  95  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  205  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  41  f.,  68  ff.,  96,  120,  240  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  94  ff.  Gray,  In- 
trod. 76  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  99  ff.  McFadyen,  Hists.  95  ff.,  177  ff.,  198  ff. 
Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  72  f.,  90.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  6  f.,  10,  13  ff., 
20  f.  Kent,  Divided- Kingd.  3  ff.,  12  ff.,  57  ff.,  113  f.,  167.  Kittel. 
Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  49  ff.,  205  ff.  HDB,  i.  687  ff.,  693  ff.  (Strachan) ;  ii. 
856  ff.  (Burney).  EBi,  ii.  2664  ff.  (W.  R.  Smith  and  Kautzsch) ;  2077  f., 
2079  f.  (Moore);  cf.  1270  ff.,  1275  ff.  (Addis).  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii. 
pp.383  ff.  (§§  1356  ff.).  W.  R.  Smith,  0.  T.  Jew.  Church 2,  113  ff.,  140. 
Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Ki.  espec.  Cen.  B.  (Skinner) ;  Camb.  B.  (Barnes 
=  in  R.  V.) ;  Expos.  B.  (Farrar).  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  288  f.  Ryle, 
Canon,  etc.,  66  f.,  cf.  52  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  9  f.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
126  f.,  181.  Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  256  ff.,  90  ff. 
1  Cf .  McFadyen,  Hists.  280. 


64        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

almost  exclusively  a  history  of  Judah,  only  the  barest  refer- 
ences being  made  to  the  Northern  Kingdom.  The  Priestly 
Code  is  the  standard  by  which  the  nation's  history  was 
judged,  as  Deuteronomy  is  the  standard  of  the  compiler  of 
the  books  of  Kings. 

''Nothing  is  of  real  interest  but  Judah;  and  in  Judah,  Jerusa- 
lem; and  in  Jerusalem,  the  temple.  For  the  Chronicler,  the 
temple  with  its  worship  is  the  centre  of  the  universe."  ^ 

The  books  of  Chronicles,  like  the  other  historical  writings 
previously  considered,  are  based  on  earlier  records.  The 
older  sources  used  by  their  writer,  who  is  usually  termed  the 
Chronicler  (Ch.),^  were  the  books  of  the  first  historical  series 
of  Old  Testament  writings  (see  pp.  1  f.),  viz.  Genesis  to 
2  Kings,  also  Ruth,  from  which  selections  were  incorporated 
almost  word  for  word,  though  occasionally  condensed,  and 
sometimes  expanded  or  changed  by  the  introduction  of 
clauses,  verses  and  longer  sections.^  Of  these  historical 
books,  it  may  be  added  that  Samuel  and  Kings  were  espe- 
cially used  by  the  Chronicler. 

The  additional  material  in  Chronicles,  for  which  there  is 
no  parallel  in  the  earlier  canonical,  historical  books,  is  derived 
from  various  sources,  the  names  of  which  are  given :  e.g. 
(a)  'Hhe  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel"  (2  C.  16  :  11, 
etc.) ;  (6)  'Hhe  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah'' 
(2  C.  27:7,  etc.);  (c)  ''the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel" 
(1  C.  9:  1,  R.  V.) ;  {d)  "the  Acts  of  the  Kings  of  Israel" 
(2  C.  33  :  18) ;  (e)  "the  Commentary"  (literally,  '^Midrash") 
"of  the  Book  of  the  Kings"  (2  C.  24 :  27,  referred  to  only  in 
this  place);  (/)  "the  History"  (literally,  "Words")  "of 
Jehu,  son  of  Hanani,  which  is  inserted  in  the  Book  of  the 
Kings  of  Israel"  (2  C.  20:34);  {g)  different  works  attrib- 
uted to  Prophetic  authors  (cf.  1  C.  29:29;  2  C.  9:29, 
etc.),  and  other  writings. 

Of  the  above  sources  mentioned,  (a)  and  (6)  are  probably  the 
same  work ;    cf .  the  fact  that  the  reigns  of  Josiah  (2  C.  35 :  27) 

1  Cf.  McFadyen,  Hists.  275. 

2  In  this  volume  hy  the  symbol  Ch.  is  designated  all  the  material  peculiar 
to  the  books  of  Chronicles ;  also  the  compiler's  contribution  in  Ezra-Neh. 
(of.  p.  201). 

3  For  illustrations  of  some  of  the  differences  of  representation  in  Chr. 
as  compared  with  the  earlier  historical  books,  cf.  p.  5. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM     65 

and  Jehoiakim  (2  C.  36 : 8)  are  referred  to  under  (6),  though  be- 
longing to  a  period  of  Judah's  history  after  the  fall  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom,  (c)  may  well  belong  to  the  same  work,  also  (d) ;  cf. 
2  C.  33 :  18  =  a  king  of  Judah.  (e)  and  (/)  may  also  be  parts  of 
the  same  ''Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel."  The  sources 
referred  to  under  (g)  may  be  independent  works,  or  not  unlikely 
sections  of  the  historical  books  cited  above  (cf.  espec.  the  infer- 
ence from  2  C.  20  :  346  ;  32  :  326  ;  cf.  Rom.  11 :  2,  R.  V.  marg.). 
It  is  thus  not  improbable  that  these  various  titles  refer  to  prac- 
tically one  source. 

It  is  to  be  noted  further  that  the  works  referred  to  above,  (a)  to 
(c),  are  not  canonical  Kings,  because  they  are  cited  for  matters 
not  referred  to  in  Kings  (cf .  1  C.  9  :  1 ;  2  C.  20  :  34 ;  27  :  7  ;  33  :  18 ; 
36 :  8).  Nor  is  it  likely  that  they  are  the  same  as  the  sources  of 
canonical  Kings;  certainly  not  if  those  writings  were  separate 
works  (p.  57).^  It  is  possible,  however,  that  they  may  have 
been  based  on  those  earlier  sources,  and  represent  a  gradual 
growth. 

The  genealogies  (1  C.  1-9)  contain  much  material  not  in  the 
older  canonical  books,  which  may  have  been  derived  from  earlier 
sources.     Cf.  p.  304,  iv.  i. 

The  new  material  derived  from  these  records,  instead  of 
being  excerpted,  as  was  the  usual  custom  in  the  composition 
of  the  earlier  historical  books,  was  largely  rewritten  by  the 
Chronicler.  This  is  seen  by  the  words  and  style  characteris- 
tic of  the  new  sections. 

Many  of  the  peculiarities  of  Ch.  are  connected  with  his  use  of 
words  and  his  constructions  in  the  Hebrew,  some  of  which  are 
found  in  other  post-exilic  writings,  but  others  used  by  him  alone, 
''which  are  often,  if  the  Book  be  read  carefully,  perceptible  in  a 
translation." 

Some  of  the  characteristic  expressions  are  "house  of  God" 
(1  C.  6 :  48  and  33  times  more) ;  to  "seek  unto"  or  "inquire  of" 
(God),  in  a  general  not  special  sense  (1  C.  13  :  3 ;  15 :  13,  etc.) ; 
"riches  and  honor"  (1  C.  29 :  12,  28;  2  C.  1 :  11  f.,  etc.) ;  "hear 
me,"  introducing  a  speech  (1  C.  28  :  2 ;  2  C.  13  :  4,  etc.),  etc.^ 

The  most  important  source  of  the  new  material  was  prob- 
ably ^'the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel"  (^'Israel 
and  Judah"),  which  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a 

^  See,  however,  the  statement  in  Cornill,  Introd.  236  f. 

2  Cf.  further  LOT,  535  ff.,  504  f.     HDB,  i.  3896  fif.     Curtis,  Chr.  27  flf. 


66        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

post-exilic  work,  a  sort  of  Midrash,  written  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  restored  community. 

This  ''Book  of  the  Kings,  etc."  may  also  have  included  statistical 
matter,  though  this  is  not  certain,  for  such  may  have  been  derived 
from  a  separate  source.  Cf .  reference  to  a  genealogical  hst,  1  C. 
5:  17;  9:  1. 

''The  Midrash  may  be  defined  as  an  imaginative  development 
of  a  thought  or  theme  suggested  by  Scripture,  especially  a  didactic 
or  homiletic  exposition,  or  an  edifying  religious  story  (Tobit  and 
Susannah  are  thus  'Midrashim')."  ^ 

The  conclusion  that  ^Hhe  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah,  etc.^' 
was  the  main  source  of  the  new  material  is  based  upon  the 
character  of  the  subject-matter,  apparently  derived  from 
this  work,  in  which  the  treatment  and  conception  of  Israel's 
history  differ  in  so  marked  a  manner  from  the  books  of 
Samuel  and  Kings. 

Notice,  for  example,  (a)  the  prominence  given  to  Levites  and 
other  Temple  officers  (1  C.  22  ff.)  of  whom  no  mention  is  made  in 
Samuel,  which  points  to  a  time  after  Ezra-Nehemiah,  c.  430  B.C. 
Cf.  also  (b)  the  conception  of  victories  gained  by  Jehovah's 
direct  interposition,  rather  than  by  the  instrumentality  of  armies, 
as  seen  in  the  remodelhng  of  2  Ki.  3  in  2  C.  20  (cf.  also  2  C. 
13  :  13  ff . ;    14  :  8  ff.),  which  indicates  a  late  date,  etc. 

It  is  not  certain  of  course  what  proportion  of  this  new  material 
was  derived  by  Ch.  from  this  "Book  of  Kings,  etc.,"  and  what 
was  added  by  himself.  Some  even  think  that  the  Chronicler 
had  only  one  source,  viz.  our  BibUcal  Samuel-Kings,  the  addi- 
tional portions  being  inserted  on  his  own  authority.^  It  seems, 
however,  more  probable  that  he  actually  used  such  a  work  as 
this  to  which  he  refers,  the  standpoint  of  which  was  much  like  his 
own. 

The  view  of  a  number  of  scholars  has  much  to  commend  it, 
that  the  Midrash  referred  to  in  2  C.  24  :  27  (R.  V.  ^^commen- 
tary") is  another  title  of  the  same  source.  As  to  the  other 
writings  mentioned,  if  they  were  separate  works,  their  dates 
undoubtedly  were  no  older,  since  the  material  derived  from 
them  is  essentially  the  same  in  character. 

The  date  of  the  compilation  of  Chronicles  is  based  upon : 
(a)  the  genealogical  list  of  1  C.  3 :  19-24,  which  according 

1  Cf.  LOT,  529.  2  For  this  view  cf.  Moore,  LOT,  124  f. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED    KINGDOM     67 

to  the  Hebrew  text  (cf.  E.  V.)  carries  the  names  of  the  Da- 
vidic  family  down  to  the  sixth  generation  after  Zerubbabel, 
and  hence  to  a  time  not  earlier  than  about  350  b.c.  If  the 
LXX  text  of  vs.  21  is  adopted,  which  is  preferred  by  many 
scholars,  the  genealogy  is  continued  to  the  eleventh  genera- 
tion after  Zerubbabel,  hence  about  250  or  200  b.c. 

The  LXX  of  1  C.  3:21  reads,  "And  the  sons  of  Hananiah, 
Pelatiah,  and  Jesaiah,  his  son,  Rephaiah,  his  son,  Arnan,  his  son, 
Obadiah,  his  son,  Shechaniah,  his  son."  This  is  after  the  analogy 
of  the  genealogical  type  followed  in  1  C.  3 :  10  ff. 

(b)  Chronicles  belongs  to  the  same  age  as  Ezra-Nehemiah, 
both  being  generally  regarded  as  the  work  of  the  same  com- 
piler. There  are  good  grounds  for  assigning  the  compilation 
of  Ezra-Nehemiah  to  a  date  after  the  close  of  the  Persian 
period,  332  b.c.  (see  pp.  202  ff.),  hence  Chronicles  cannot  be 
earlier,  (c)  The  standpoint  of  the  compiler,  who  was 
possibly  a  Levitical  singer,  is  that  of  the  Priestly  Code,  as 
noticed  above  (pp.  63  f.).  The  adoption  of  this  Code  is  now 
generally  assigned  to  a  post-exilic  date.  And  (d)  the  lan- 
guage and  style  are  also  late  (cf.  the  language,  etc.,  p.  65). 

Other  grounds  for  the  late  date  of  Chronicles,  which  may  be 
mentioned,  are  :  (e)  the  reference  to  Persian  ''darics"  (1  C.  29  :  7), 
which  implies  a  time  when  that  coinage  had  long  been  current, 
i.e.  at  least  late  in  the  Persian  period;  and  (/)  the  title  ''king  of 
Persia"  (2  C.  36:22  f.)  instead  of  the  official  title,  "the  king"; 
"the  great  king,"  etc.,  points  to  a  date  after  the  Persian  period 
(cf.  also  Ezra,  etc.,  pp.  202  ff.). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  reference  is  made  to  the 
books  of  Chronicles  in  Ecclesiasticus  (49:13),  c.  200-180 
B.C.,  shows  that  they  were  completed  before  that  time. 
The  date  accordingly  to  which  the  compilation  of  the  books 
of  Chronicles  is  commonly  assigned  is  300-250  b.c 

Note  also,  as  bearing  on  the  date  of  the  completion  of  Chronicles, 
that  in  them  there  is  no  reference  to,  nor  trace  of,  the  Jewish 
experiences  during  the  Maccabean  conflict,  c.  170-165  b.c.  and 
later. 

The  late  date  of  Chronicles  is  important  to  remember  in  com- 
paring the  statements,  contained  therein,  with  the  accounts  in 
Samuel  and  Kings.     In  differences  of  detail  or  point  of  view  the 


68        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

fact  must  be  taken  into  account  that  Samuel  and  Kings  are  much 
nearer  the  original  sources  of  information  than  Chronicles. 

Of  the  books  of  Chronicles,  1  C.  10-2  C.  9,  together  with 
some  sections  in  1  C.  1-9,  belong  to  the  United  Kingdom  ; 
the  remainder  relates  to  the  period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom.^ 

2.   Literature  Which  may  Possibly  Date  from  the  Period 
OF  the  United  Kingdom 

In  addition  to  the  portions  of  literature  belonging  to  the 
period  of  the  United  Kingdom,  which  are  embodied  in  the 
historical  books,  such  as  David's  Elegy  (2  Sam.  1 :  17  ff.), 
there  are  other  Old  Testament  writings,  which  according  to 
their  ascriptions  belong  here,  which  it  will  be  necessary  to 
consider. 

A.  Psalms.  It  is  generally  allowed  among  Old  Testament 
scholars  that  the  Psalter  was  the  hymn  book  of  the  post- 
exilic  Jewish  community.  As  such  it  properly  belongs  to 
that  period  where  it  will  be  considered  more  in  detail.  But 
this  date  for  the  compilation  of  the  Psalter  does  not  preclude 
the  possibility  of  individual  psalms,  or  fragments  of  psalms, 
of  earlier  dates  being  incorporated  in  the  collection. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  many  scholars  admit  the  existence  of 
a  few  psalms  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Maccabean  struggle, 
0.  170  ff.  B.C.,  e.g.  74,  79,  44  and  possibly  83.  According  to 
others  many  more  date  from  this  late  period.^ 

When  an  attempt  is  made  to  determine  what  are  the 
earlier  psalms,  with  their  respective  authors  and  dates,  a 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Chronicles, 
LOT,  516  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  107  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  225  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  121  ff.  McFadven,  Introd.  347  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  87  ff.  Moore, 
LOT,  116  ff.  McFadyen,  Hists.  270  ff.  HDB,  i.  389  ff.  (Brown);  iii. 
5976  f.  (Curtis) ;  6135  f.  (Woods).  EBi,  1.  667  f.  (Budde) ;  763  ff.  (W.  R. 
Smith  and  Driver) ;  ii.  2084  ff.  (Moore).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Chr. 
espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Curtis) ;  Expos.  B.  (Bennett) ;  Cen.  B.  (Harvey-Jellie) ; 
Camb.  B.  (Barnes).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  109  ff.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog., 
etc.,  7,  22  ff.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  7  ff.  Kent,  United  Kingd.  13,  15, 
111  f.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  272,  312  f.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  224  ff. 
H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  4  ff.,  419  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  10  f.  W.  R. 
Smith,  0.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  140  ff.,  cf.  204.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc., 
457  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  361  f.  Cheyne,  Jew.  ReHg.  Life,  213  ff. 
Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  138  f.,  144  f.,  151.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  303  ff. 

2  Cf.  Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.    See  his  list  p.  318,  iii.  3.  c,  this  vol. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF  UNITED    KINGDOM      69 

problem  of  great  difficulty  involving  much  uncertainty  is 
met  with,  upon  which  the  opinion  of  scholars  at  present 
varies  quite  widely.^  This  is  due  to  the  following  circum- 
stances :  First,  the  titles  ascribing  authorship  and  occasion 
are  now  generally  considered  to  be  editorial  additions  of 
later  times,  representing  either  traditional  opinion  in  refer- 
ence to  individual  psalms,  or  derived  from  titles  which 
originally  belonged  to  collections.  For  example  the  title, 
^' A  Psalm  of  David,"  may  simply  mean  a  psalm  belonging  to 
a  Davidic  collection^  irrespective  of  its  particular  authorship. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  psalms  attributed  to  "the  sons  of 
Korah"  (42,  44  ff.,  etc.)  this  title  evidently  refers  to  the  name  of 
a  collection  and  not  to  plurality  of  authorship. ^ 

That  many  of  such  titles  cannot  be  accepted  as  guarantee- 
ing Davidic  authorship  is  shown  by  references  in  the  psalms 
themselves,  pointing  to  other  occasions  and  dates.  Thus 
among  the  73  psalms  attributed  to  David  are :  (a) 
linguistic  pecuharities,  such  as  Aramaisms  {e.g.  103 ;  122 
and  139  especially) ;  (6)  references  impljdng  the  existence 
of  the  Temple  {e.g.  5  :  7a ;  24  :  4,  etc.) ;  and  (c)  conditions 
and  problems  reflected,  which  are  different  from  those  of 
David's  time,  —  such  as  the  oppression  of  the  righteous  by 
the  wicked  {e.g.  12;  13;  35,  etc.),  and  allusions  to  later 
historical  situations  {e.g.  51,  cf.  vss.  18  f. ;  69,  cf.  vs.  4. 
Note  in  both  of  these  psalms  that  the  Exile  and  the  approach- 
ing Restoration  are  implied).  These  facts  together  with 
(d)  the  expression  of  theological  conceptions  denoting  a 
more  advanced  stage  of  rehgious  progress  {e.g.  psalms  pre- 
supposing the  teaching  of  the  great  prophets  of  the  eighth 
century  and  following)  may  be  given  as  some  of  the  reasons 
which  lead  scholars  to-day  to  consider  such  psalms  non- 
Davidic. 

1  See  classification  of  views  in  reference  to  pre-exilic  psalms,  pp.  130  f. 

2  Cf .  against  this  explanation  as  bearing  on  the  Davidic  titles,  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  142.  Note  also  the  view  in  Cornill,  Introd.  396  f.  Cf.  Kent's  con- 
clusion that  "the  title  To  David  must  mean  either  a  psalm  dedicated  to 
David  or  else  one  of  a  collection  of  songs  made  by  a  guild  of  singers  who 
bore  the  historic  designation  David.  .  .  .  The  title  Psalm  of  David 
.  .  .  was  used  to  designate  an  early  literary  production  the  exact  author- 
ship of  which  was  unknown,  but  which  was  by  current  tradition  attributed 
to  the  traditional  patron  of  this  type  of  literature."  See  his  Songs,  etc., 
41. 


70        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  in  some  of  the  psalms  assigned 
to  David  the  standpoint  is  that  of  subjects  addressing  their  king, 
e.g.  Pss.  20  and  21. 

Thirteen  of  the  psalms  refer  to  specific  events  in  David's  career ; 
cf.  the  headings  of  Pss.  3 ;  7;  18;  34;  51;  52;  54;  56;  57; 
59;  60;  63;  142.  According  to  Briggs  these  superscriptions 
were  added  by  a  late  editor,  because  these  psalms  seemed  to  him 
to  illustrate  appropriately  the  different  events  in  David's  hfe 
to  which  he  has  assigned  them.^  Note  also  the  view  of  W.  R. 
Smith,  that  these  titles  had  their  origin  in  an  age  'Ho  which  David 
was  merely  the  abstract  Psalmist,  and  which  had  no  idea  what- 
ever of  the  historical  conditions  of  his  time."  ^ 

A  second  fact,  which  accounts  for  the  difficulty  in  reference 
to  date  and  authorship,  is  that  the  internal  evidence  of  the 
psalms  (such  as  historical  allusions,  literary  characteristics, 
relation  to  other  Old  Testament  literature,  and  theological 
conceptions),  upon  which  alone  these  questions  can  be  decided, 
is  seldom  of  definite  enough  character  to  indicate  more  than 
the  general  period  to  which  a  psalm  belongs,  such  as  pre- 
exilic,  exilic  and  post-exilic.  In  many  instances  even  these 
distinctions  cannot  be  made  with  certainty. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  related  to  the  question  of  Davidic 
psalms,  the  consideration  of  which  belongs  especially  to  the 
period  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  the  certainty  that  David 
was  a  musician  and  poet,  as  is  known  from  the  testimony 
of  early  and  varied  sources  (e.g.  1  Sam.  16 :  17  ff. ;  18 :  10 ; 
2  Sam.  1:17  ff.;  3  :  33  ff. ;  6  :  5,  etc. ;  Amos  6:  5).  This, 
however,  does  not  prove  that  any  of  the  present  psalms  in  the 
Psalter  were  written  by  him.  It  simply  points  to  the 
possihilityy  if  not  the  probahility,  of  such  being  the  case. 

It  is  true  that  the  Chronicler  undoubtedly  regarded  David  as 
the  founder  of  the  Temple  psalmody  (cf .  1  C.  23  :  5 ;  25  :  1-7 ; 
2  C.  7  :  6,  etc. ;  also  Ezra  3  :  10  and  Neh.  12  :  36),  but  his  testi- 
mony belongs  to  a  time  long  subsequent  to  David.     Cf.  pp.  66  ff. 

It  is  the  opinion  accordingly  of  the  great  majority  of  Old 
Testament  scholars  at  present,  that  it  is  impossible  to  prove 
the  existence  of  any  Davidic  psalms,  owing  to  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  data  definite  enough  to  establish  such  a  conclusion. 

1  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixiii  f. 

2  Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  0.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  216.     Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  41. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED    KINGDOM      71 

While,  therefore,  several  scholars  admit  the  existence  of  a 
limited  number  of  such,  the  general  trend  of  opinion  is 
strongly  against  the  possibihty  of  many,  if  any.  Those 
which  with  more  probabihty  may  be  assigned  to  David  are 
given  in  the  outline  of  Biblical  material  of  this  period,  but 
with  the  recognition  that  this  is  not  a  certain  or  unanimous 
conclusion  of  scholars. 

Ewald  attributed  to  David  Pss.  3;  4;  7;  8;  11;  15;  18; 
19  :  1-6  ;  24  :  1-6 ;  24  :  7-10 ;  29 ;  32 ;  101 ;  also  the  fragments 
found  in  later  psalms,  60  :  6-9  ;  68  :  13-18  and  144  :  12-14.  He 
based  this  conclusion  on  the  originality,  dignity  and  unique  power 
displayed  in  them.^ 

This  list  is  considerably  enlarged  in  Kirkpatrick's  volume  on 
the  Psalms ;  and  a  still  larger  number  are  considered  Davidic  by 
DeKtzsch. 

Driver  leaves  the  question  of  Davidic  psalms  an  open  one. 
He  thinks  it  may  be  affirmed  "^ith  tolerable  confidence  that  very 
few  of  the  psalms  are  earlier  than  the  seventh  century  b.c.^ 

Davison,  while  admitting  that  it  cannot  be  proved  that  any 
Davidic  psalms  are  found  in  the  Psalter,  thinks  that  if  the  18th 
be  his  the  probability  is  that  others  should  also  be  attributed  to 
him.  There  is,  therefore,  the  possibility  of  from  10  to  20  Davidic 
psalms,  including  3  ;  4  ;  7  ;  8 ;  15  ;  18 ;  23  ;  24  ;  32  and  per- 
haps 101  and  110.  ''The  number  can  hardly  be  greater  and  may 
be  still  less."  ^ 

These  may  be  taken  as  representative  opinions  of  moderately 
conservative  scholars  on  this  difficult  subject. 

Of  the  scholars  who  hold  that  no  Davidic  psalms  are  found  in 
the  Psalter,  Cheque  may  be  taken  as  the  leading  authority  among 
Enghsh  and  American  writers.  While  formerly  he  held  that  with 
the  possible  exception  of  Ps.  18,  which  is  not  earUer  than  Deu- 
teronomy =  7th  cen.  B.C.,  none  of  the  psalms  are  pre-exiUc,  more 
recently  he  had  concluded  that  this  psalm  also  belongs  to  a  later 
date.^ 

Cf.  the  view  of  Briggs  that  Ps.  18  in  its  original  form  (i.e.  vss.  1, 
20-23,  24-27,  446-45,  49  =  later,  post-exihc  additions)  was 
probably  Davidic ;  and  possibly  Pss.  7  and  60 ;  6-lOa ;  also 
24:7-10  (or  =  early  monarchy).^ 

1  Cf.  Ewald,  Psal.  i.  pp.' 64  fP.,  70. 

2  Cf.  LOT,  384.     See  also  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  40  f.,  48. 

3  Cf.  Davison,  Psal.  23-26;   and  in  HDB,  iv.  151. 

^  Cheyne's  earlier  view  =  Origin  Psal.  204  ff. ;  his  later  view  = 
Introd.  Isa.  171.  For  a  concise  summary  of  reasons  against  the  existence 
of  Davidic  psalms,  cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  51  f.  (§  909). 

5  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixiv,  213  f. 


72        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

The  conclusion  of  Driver  on  the  problem  of  Davidic  author- 
ship may  be  noted:  ''The  question,  however,  whether  any  of 
the  Psalms  are  David's  possesses  in  reahty  Httle  but  an  antiqua- 
rian interest.  David,  it  is  certain,  left  his  impress  upon  the  reli- 
gion of  Israel  not,  hke  the  prophets,  directly  but  indirectly,  by 
estabhshing  the  monarchy  upon  a  permanent  basis,  and  lajdng 
the  foimdations  for  a  national  religious  centre."  ^  ^ 

B.  Proverbs.  For  the  discussion  of  Solomonic  Proverbs, 
and  the  possibility  of  pre-exilic  collections  of  Proverbs,  cf. 
pp.  116  ff.;  313  f.,  v.  s.  V.  x. 

C.  The  Blessing  of  Jacob  (Gen.  49:2-27).  This  poem, 
in  its  present  form,  is  now  considered  by  almost  all  Old  Testa- 
ment scholars  to  be  later  than  the  time  of  Jacob.  It  is  held 
to  be  either  (a)  an  expansion  of  an  ancient  production; 
or  (b)  composed  of  separate  poetic  fragments  relating  to  the 
different  tribes,  possibly  from  different  periods ;  or  (c) 
according  to  some  it  is  a  unity,  written  at  a  later  time  to 
express  the  content  of  Jacob's  blessing.  (Cf.  on  the  poems 
incorporated  in  JE,  p.  29.) 

This  view  of  the  late  date  of  the  poem  is  based  on  the  his- 
torical and  geographical  conditions  assumed  in  it,  which  are 
those  of  the  times  of  the  Judges,  Samuel  and  David.  From 
the  analogy  of  Old  Testament  predictions,  which  always 
reflect  the  writer^ s  own  age,  the  chronological  indications  of 
the  poem  are  acccordingly  clear. 

Note  (a)  that  vss.  23  f.  look  back  upon  past  events;   also  (6) 

1  Cf.  LOT,  380. 

2  Cf.  further  on  the  question  of  authorship  and  date  of  individual 
psalms,  LOT,  373  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  143  ff.  CorniU,  Introd.  393  ff. 
Kautzsch,  LOT,  11  f.  McFadyen,  Introd.  244  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  134  ff. 
Moore,  LOT,  220  ff.  HDB,  i.  561a,  5716  (White) ;  iv.  149  ff.  (Davison). 
EBi,  i.  1034  f . ;  iii.  3942  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Psal.,  e.g. 
Ewald,  Delitzsch,  etc.,  and  espec.  in  Int.  Crit.  (Briggs) ;  Camb.  B.  (Kirk- 
patrick) ;  Cen.  B.  (Davison  and  Davies  =  2  vols.).  Bennett,  Primer, 
etc.,  106  ff.  McFadyen,  Psal.  19  ff.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  2, 
96  f.,  espec.  214  ff.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  40  ff.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  99  ff. 
Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.  190  ff.  (also  notes  pp.  208-213,  459  f.).  Cheyne, 
Aids,  etc.,  131  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  322  ff.,  334  ff.  McCurdy, 
HPM,  iii.  pp.  51  f.  (§  909).  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  86  f.  Robert- 
son, Poet,  and  Relig.,  etc.,  chaps,  3  and  13.  Sayce,  Early  Hist.  Hebrs.  449  f. 
Kent,  United  Kingd.  165  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  16  ff.,  276.  Kittel,  Scient. 
Study  O.  T.  128  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  106  f.  Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc., 
43  ff. ;  cf .  130  ff. 

(For  introduction  to  the  Psalter,  including  its  divisions,  collections 
and  dates,  see  pp.  224  ff.) 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM      73 

the  use  of  ''Jacob"  and  ''Israel"  (vs.  7)  in  the  national  sense, 
which  impHes  an  age  long  after  that  of  Jacob.  Cf.  (c)  that  the 
poem  is  a  description  of  the  tribes  not  of  the  individual  sons  of 
Jacob. 

The  poem  accordingly  is  now  generally  assigned  to  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon,  —  note  especially  Judah's 
position  of  supremacy,  vss.  8-12,  So  McCurdy,  Kautzsch, 
H.  P.  Smith,  Duhm,  etc.  It  may  be  noted  that  some  con- 
sider that  parts  of  the  poem  may  date  from  the  days  of  the 
Judges  (e.g.  vss.  3-7,  14-17,  27  on  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi, 
Issachar,  Dan  and  Benjamin ;  cf.  Skinner),  while  the  section 
on  Joseph  (vss.  22-26)  is  assigned  by  a  number  of  scholars 
to  the  time  of  the  Divided  Kingdom  (cf.  Bennett).^ 

D.  The  Balaam  poems  in  Num.  23-24.     See  p.  41,  iv.  c. 

E.  For  Ex.  15 :  1-18  and  other  literature  which  may 
belong  to  this  period,  cf.  pp.  83  f.,  v. 

^  Cf .  further  on  the  Blessing  of  Jacob,  LOT,  19.  Bennett,  Introd.  63. 
Cornill,  Introd.  117  f.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  15,  177.  McFadyen,  Introd. 
16  f.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  10.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  93  f.  H.  P. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  104,  175  f.,  499.  Wade,  0.  T.  Hist.  7,  82.  Sanders, 
Hist.  Hebrs.  47,  107.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  58  fP.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii. 
pp.  49  f.  (§  905).  Comms.  on  Gen.  in  loc.  (e.g.  Bennett,  Driver,  Skinner, 
Rvie  =  p.  xxxv).  HDB,  ii.  532a  (Driver) ;  iv.  116  (Budde),  2386  (Ben- 
nett). EBi,  ii.  1677  (Moore);  iii.  3797;  cf.  3795  (Duhm).  CHB,  Hex. 
i.  159  f.  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  105.  Schmidt,  Poets,  309  ff. 
Gordon,  Poets,  etc.^  40  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  41  f. 


VI.  B.  Narratives  and  Literature  of  the  Period  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  Chronologically  Outlined,  c.  1040 
(?)  B.C.-937  B.C.  =  1  Samuel  8-1  Kings  11 ;  (//  1  Chronicles 
10-2  Chronicles  9) ;  some  Davidic  psalms  ( ?) ;  some  Sol- 
omonic proverbs  ( ?).  Poems,  e.g.  Gen.  49  :  2-27  (  =  Blessing 
of  Jacob),  and  in  Num.  23  f.,  the  Balaam  oracles,  etc.^ 

1.   Saul  1040  (?)-1020  (?)  b.c. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  SauVs  reign  =  1  Sam.  8 :  1-28 :  2 ; 

1  Chr.  12  :  1-22 ;   1  Sam.  28  :  3-30  :  31 ;  31  (//  1  Chr.  10) ;  2  Sam. 
1 : 1-27. 

ii.   Literary  productions. 

2  Sam.  1 :  19-27.     David's  Lament  over  Saul  and  Jonathan. 

iii.    Composition  of  the  historical  material  and  literary  notes. 

a.  EarUer  Prophetic,  Saul  and  David  narratives  :  (J?)  =  1  Sam. 
9:1-10:16  +  10:276  (LXX ;  cf.  R.  V.  marg.)  +  11 : 1-11,  15 
(  =  Saul's  appointment  as  king) ;  13  :  2-7,  156-18 ;  14  ;  16  : 
14-23;  18  :6*-l  1,20-30;  20  (in  the  main) ;  22;  23:1-13,19-29; 
24  (in  the  main) ;  25 ;  27  :  1-31 :  13  (in  the  main) ;  2  Sam.  1 : 
1-5,  12,  17  f.  (E  ?)  =  1  Sam.  15  (in  the  main) ;  17  :  1-18  :  5  (in 
the  main) ;   18 :  6*,  12-19 ;   19  : 1-18* ;  21 : 1-9 ;  23  :  14-18 ;   26 ; 

2  Sam.  1:6-11,  13-16.^ 

h.  Later  Prophetic  narratives  (E^?)  =  1  Sam.  8  +  10:  17-27 
(E.  V.)  +  12  (or  =  R^ ;  cf .  n.  d  below)  ( =  Saul's  appointment 
as  king) ;   13  :  8-15a,  19-22  (J^?) ;   15  :  24-31,  34  f. 

c.  Later  supplemental  additions  more  or  less  connected  =  1 
Sam.  11:12-14;  16  :  1-13  (R^) ;  17  :  12  f. ;  19  :  18*-24  (late) ; 
20:4-17,  40-42;  21:10-15  (late);  (24 :  20-22a  ?) ;  25:1a; 
28 : 3,  17-19a.3 

1  For  other  literature  assigned  to  this  period  by  different  scholars,  see 
above  ii ;  p.  76,  ii ;  p.  78,  ii ;  pp.  83  f.,  v ;  cf.  also  pp.  79-81,  ii.-iii. ;  and  p. 
81,  ii. 

2  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  LXX  text  of  the  sections  1  S.  17 :  1-18 :  5 
and  18 :  6-30  is  much  shorter,  the  following  vss.  being  omitted,  17  :  12-31, 
386,  41,  486,  50,  55-18  :  5,  6a  (to  "Phil."),  86,  10 f.,  126  (all  after  "David"), 
17-19,  216,  266,  296-30.  For  the  bearing  of  this  on  the  difficulties  raised, 
espec.  in  the  first  section,  on  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew  text  (cf.  E.  V.),  cf. 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

3  For  the  different  classification  and  analyses  of  these  sources  a-c, 
according  to  Kautzsch,  cf.  pp.  135  f.,  ii.  a.  (o)-(6)  and  p.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

74 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   UNITED   KINGDOM       75 

d.  The  following  may  be  Deuteronomic  (R^)  =  (1  Sam.  12) ; 
13:1;  14:47-51  (?);  28:3  (?).  [Many  scholars  think  that 
1  Sam.  12  formed  the  conclusion  of  the  original  (JE?)  history  of 
the  Judges,  as  Josh.  24  ended  the  account  of  the  Conquest.  The 
chapter  has  affinities  with  E  but  it  is  also  allied  to  D ;  hence 
some  scholars  designate  it  as  E^  with  small  additions  by  BP  (D^). 
Perhaps  the  basis  of  the  narrative  is  E,  which  was  subsequently 
expanded  (espec.  vss.  9  ff.)  by  a  writer  whose  phraseology  was 
Deuteronomic]  For  other  vss.  possibly  editorial  in  addition  to 
those  indicated  in  h-c  above,  cf.  Introds.,  Comms.  and  Bible  Diets. 

e.  The  following  sections  are  considered  parallel  (variant) 
accounts :  (a)  the  two  stories  of  Saul's  appointment,  cf .  above, 
a,  b;  (6)  1  Sam.  10  :  10-13//19  :  18-24  ;  (c)  13  :  4-15//chap.  15 ; 
(d)  16  :  14-23//17  : 1-18  :  5 ;  (e)  19  :  1-7,  cf.  chap.  20  (?) ;  (/)  23  : 
1,  19-24  +chap.  24//chap.  26;  (g)  2  Sam.  1:1-5,  12,  cf.  vss. 
6-11,  13-16  (?). 

/.  The  material  pecuHar  to  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  =  1  C.  12  :  1-22 ; 
10:13f. 

g.  For  the  character  and  date  of  the  ''Book  of  Jashar"  (2  Sam. 
1 :  18),  from  which  the  Elegy  of  David  was  derived  (vss.  19  if.), 
cf.  p.  43,  iv.  h.  The  authenticity  of  this  Elegy  is  practically  un- 
questioned. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  There  is  much  m.ore  certainty  in  determining  the  close  of 
this  period  than  in  the  case  of  the  dates  thus  far  considered. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  from  dates  absolutely  settled  by  the 
aid  of  Assyrian  chronology  (cf.  Ap.  C,  p.  344),  by  working  back- 
ward in  history,  the  end  of  this  period  can  be  approximately  deter- 
mined. Hence  the  year  given  above,  937  b.c,  or  934  B.C.,  accord- 
ing to  McCurdy  (HPM,  iii.  p.  434).  The  dating  of  the  beginning 
of  this  period  on  the  basis  of  the  Biblical  chronology  is  more 
uncertain,  for  while  the  length  of  Solomon's  reign  is  given  as  40 
years  (1  Ki.  11:42),  and  that  of  David  40  years  (1  Ki.  2:  11), 
the  number  of  years  to  be  assigned  to  Saul's  reign  is  conjectural 
(cf.  below,  n.  c).  About  1040  (or  1050)  b.c.  may  be  taken  as  the 
approximate  date. 

5.  It  may  be  noted  that  from  c.  1100  B.C.  to  c.  900  b.c,  Assyria 
was  weak  and  non-aggressive;  and  also  that  the  condition  of 
Egypt  was  similar  from  at  least  c.  1200-950  b.c.  This  gave  an 
opportunity  for  the  extension  of  the  Israelitish  territory,  especially 
during  the  reign  of  David,  without  any  interference  from  those 
powers. 

c.  The  length  of  Saul's  reign  is  conjectural.  The  only  chron- 
ological reference  is  found  in  1  Sam.  13 :  1,  but  the  text  is  uncer- 


76        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

tain.  It  is  thought  by  some  scholars  that  instead  of  two  years 
assigned  to  his  reign  there  {i.e.  the  dual  form  of  the  Hebrew  word 
in  the  text),  originally  the  plural  form  of  the  noim  was  found, 
which  was  preceded  by  some  number  which  was  subsequently 
lost  from  the  text.  Other  dates  suggested  for  this  reign  vary 
from  1037  to  c.  1015  b.c.  for  its  beginning  and  from  c.  1017-c. 
1000  B.C.  for  its  close. 

d.  According  to  Kittel  the  Phihstine  invasion  (1  Sam.  28  ff.) 
was  a  few  decades  later  than  that  recorded  in  1  Sam.  14.  Cf. 
Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  132. 

2.   David  1020  (?)-980  (?)  b.c. 

A.    David  as  King  of  Judah,  c.  1020-1013  (?)  b.c. 

i.  Sources  for  the  history  of  David's  reign  as  king  of  Judah  = 
2  Sam.  2-4 ;   1  Chr.  12  :  23-40.^ 

ii.   Literary  productions. 

2  Sam.  3  :  33  f .     David's  Elegy  over  Abner. 

iii.    Composition  of  the  historical  sources  and  literary  notes. 

a.  In  2  Samuel  the  work  of  the  later  editors  and  the  presence 
of  later  sources  are  not  so  marked  as  in  1  Samuel.  The  older 
Davidic  narratives  constitute  the  main  body  of  the  book. 

h.  The  following  verses  are  probably  editorial  in  2  Sam.  2^; 
2:10a,  11  (R°?);  3:30;  4:4. 

c.  1  Chr.  12  :  23^0  is  pecuhar  to  the  Chronicler,  i.e.  =  Ch. 

d.  The  Elegy  of  David,  2  Sam.  3  :  33  f .  is  generally  admitted  to 
be  authentic. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  According  to  the  Biblical  chronology  the  length  of  David's 
reign  was  40  years  (2  Sam.  5  :  4  f . ;  1  Ki.  2  :  11).  The  dates  given 
above  are  approximate.  Other  dates  suggested  for  his  reign  vary 
from  1017  to  c.  1000  b.c.  for  its  beginning  and  from  977  to  c.  960 
B.C.  for  its  close. 

b.  According  to  2  Sam.  5 : 4  f .  and  1  Ki.  2:11  David  reigned 
as  king  at  Hebron  over  Judah  alone  seven  years  and  six  months. 
The  years  may  be  given  approximately  as  above,  c.  1020-1013  (?) 
B.C.     Cf.  for  variant  dating  the  previous  note. 

B.     David  as  King  of  United  Israel,  c.  1013-980  (?)  b.c. 

(a)  i.  Sources  for  the  history  of  Davids  reign  as  king  of  United 
Israel. 

1  For  previous  records  relating  to  David  prior  to  his  elevation  to  the 
throne,  cf.  1  Sam.  16  ff. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM      77 

Cf .  records  of  national  events,  espec.  2  Sam.  5 : 1-10  (//I  Chr. 
11 :  1-9) ;  2  Sam.  5  :  11-25  (//I  Chr.  14  :  1-17) ;  2  Sam.  6:1-11 
(//I  Chr.  13) ;  1  Chr.  15 :  1-24 ;  2  Sam.  6 :  12-23  (//I  Chr. 
15  :  25-16  :  3,  43) ;  1  Chr.  16  :  4-42 ;  2  Sam.  7-8  (//I  Chr.  17-18). 

ii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources. 

a.  For  the  sources  of  2  Samuel,  cf.  above,  iii.  a,  p.  76. 

h.  The  folloAving  verses  and  sections  are  Deuteronomic  (R^), 
incorporating  older  material,  in  2  Sam.  5-8  =  5 : 4  f .  (chap.  7) ; 
8:1-7  (8:  11  f.  =  R^).  [The  basis  of  chap.  7  is  one  of  the  old 
Davidic  narratives.  Scholars  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  extent  of 
the  Deuteronomic  influence.  According  to  Stenning  it  is  not 
marked  (HDB,  iv.  3896).  There  is  also  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  date  when  this  chapter  received  its  present  form  ;  whether 
the  7th  century  or  the  Exile  (as  H.  P.  Smith,  Sam.  297  f.).]  For 
other  vss.  possibly  editorial  cf.  Comms.,  Introds.  and  Bible  Diets. 

c.  The  following  is  peculiar  to  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  =  1  C.  14 : 
126,  17  ;  13  :  1-5  (in  part) ;  15  :  1-24  ;  16  :  4-7,  37-42 ;  17  :  10*, 
136,  14,  176,  18a*,  216*,  22,  27*. 

d.  The  psalm  incorporated  in  1  Chr.  16 :  8-36  is  a  compilation 
from  Pss.  105  : 1-15 ;    96  : 1-13* ;    106  : 1,  47  f. 

iii.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  For  the  date  when  David  became  king  of  United  Israel,  cf. 
above,  iv.  a,  p.  76. 

6.  Hiram  of  Tyre  referred  to  in  2  Sam.  5:11  f.  (cf.  1  Ki.  5:1) 
reigned  according  to  Josephus  34  yrs.  (cf.  Ant.  viii,  5,  §  3 ;  c.  Ap. 
i.  §§17,  18).  The  years  usually  given  for  his  reign  are  969- 
936  B.C.  This  conflicts  with  the  dates  assigned  to  David's  reign 
above,  c.  1020-c.  980  (?)  b.c.  Various  solutions  are  offered; 
e.g.  (a)  the  bringing  of  the  dates  of  David's  rule  down  a  little 
later,  and  the  placing  of  the  events  of  5 :  11  f.  at  the  end,  instead 
of  near  the  beginning,  of  his  reign;  or  (6)  the  possibility  that 
Hiram's  father,  Abiba'al,  instead  of  Hiram  was  the  king;  or 
(c)  that  5 :  11  f.  is  an  anticipation  of  Hiram's  kindness  to  Solomon 
(IKi.  5:1). 

c.  2  Sam.  21 :  15-22  (cf .  1  Chr.  20 :  4-8)  records  events  which 
evidently  must  belong  to  the  early  part  of  David's  reign.  Hence 
these  sections  are  placed  after  2  Sam.  5  by  many  scholars.  Chap. 
23:8-39  (cf.  1  Chr.  11:10-47)  seems  clearly  a  continuation  of 
21 :  15-22  and  so  will  naturally  follow  chronologically. 

(6)  i.  Sources  for  events  especially  connected  with  David's  family 
=  2  Sam.  9;  10  (//I  Chr.  19;  1-19) ;  2  Sam.  11  (vs.  1//1  Chr. 
20 :  la-6) ;  2  Sam.  12  (with  vss.  26-31  cf .  1  Chr.  20 :  lc-3) ; 
2  Sam.  13-19 ;  20  (with  vss.  23-26  cf .  1  Chr.  18 :  15-17) ;  1  Ki. 


78        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

1  (cf.  1  Chr.  23: 1);  1  Ki.  2 : 1-11  (with  vss.  11,  12a,  cf.  1  Chr. 
29 :  26-30)  +  additional  details  connected  with  the  closing  years 
of  David's  life  =  1  Chr.  22 :  2-19  +  23  :  2-29  :  22. 

ii.   Literary  productions. 

a.  2  Sam.  12  :  1-4.     Nathan's  Parable.^ 

h.  18  :  33.      David's  Lament  for  Absalom. 

iii.  Composition  of  the  historical  sources  relating  to  David* s 
family. 

a.  Scholars  are  agreed  in  reference  to  the  unity  of  2  Sam.  9-2Q 
together  with  1  Ki.  1-2,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  minor  inser- 
tions. These  chapters  may  be  classified  as  Prophetic.  Thej^  form 
a  group  of  the  best  first-hand  historical  narratives  of  the  Old 
Testament  (J?). 

h.  The  following  vss.  are  editorial,  espec.  Deuteronomic  (R^), 
incorporating  in  some  instances  earher  material ;  2  Sam.  12 : 
10-12  ;  14  :  25-27  (R  ?) ;  15  :  24  (in  part,  or  =  R^) ;  20  :  23-26 ; 
1  Ki.  2 :  2  f.,  4  (?),  10  f.  (?).  For  other  vss.  possibly  editorial  in 
this  section,  cf.  Comms.,  Introds.  and  Bible  Diets. 

c.  The  following  sections  are  pecuhar  to  the  Chronicler  (Ch.) 
=  1  C.  29  :  26,  28-30  +  22  :  2-19 ;  23  :  2-29  :  22. 

d.  The  Lament  for  Absalom,  2  Sam.  18 :  33  is  generally  con- 
sidered authentic. 

iv.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  events  recorded  in  2  Sam.  9  occurred  probably  at  least 
10  years  after  the  death  of  Ishbaal  and  David's  succession  to  the 
United  Kingdom..  Thus  at  Saul's  death  Meribbaal  was  5  yrs. 
of  age  (2  S.  4 : 4) ;  it  was  7  and  a  half  years  later  before  David 
became  king  of  all  Israel  (2  S.  5  :  4  f.) ;  and  at  the  time  of  the  events 
of  chap.  9  Meribbaal  had  a  young  son  (vs.  12).  Cf.  Wade,  0.  T. 
Hist.  245. 

h.  The  capture  of  Rabbah  (2  S.  12  :  26  ff.)  is  dated  by  McCurdy 
c.  980  B.C.     Cf.  HPM,  i.  p.  248  (§  204). 

c.  Kennedy,  who  places  the  accession  of  David  in  1010  B.C., 
dates  the  events  of  2  Sam.  13  c.  985  b.c.  His  conclusion  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  Amnon  and  Absalom  were  born  before  1003  b.c. 
(2  S.  3  :  2)  and  in  chap.  13  had  reached  maturity.     Cf.  his  Sam.  31. 

d.  In  2  Sam.  15 :  7  the  number,  40  years,  is  evidently  too  long 
a  period;  hence  many  scholars  change  it  to  ''four"  (=  LXX, 
Luc. ;  Pesh. ;  see  R.  V.  marg.),  which  seems  more  probable.  The 
numbers ''  four  "  and  ''forty  "  could  easily  be  confused  in  the  Hebrew. 

e.  Between  the  events  of  2  Sam.  13  and  15  intervened  a  term 
of  11  years  (cf.  13  :  23  =2  yrs. ;  vs.  38  =  3  yrs. ;  14  :  28  =  2  yrs. ; 

1  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  12,  175;  cf.,  however,  Kennedy,  Sam.  in  loc. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD    OF   UNITED   KINGDOM      79 

15 : 7,  R.  V.  marg.  =  4  yrs.).      This  brings  Absalom's  rebellion 
"in  or  near  the  last  decade  of  David's  reign." 

/.  The  events  of  2  Sam.  21 :  1-14  may  be  placed  chronologically 
after  those  of  2  S.  9  with  a  good  deal  of  probability.  The  events 
of  2  Sam.  24  may  belong  chronologically  after  those  of  chap.  12. 

(c)  i.  Sources  for  the  history  of  David's  reign,  —  supplementary 
details.  2  Sam.  21-24  (21 :  18-22//1  Chr.  20  :  4-8 ;  2  Sam.  23  : 
8-39//1  Chr.  11 :  10-47 ;   2  Sam.  24 ;  cf.  1  Chr.  21 : 1-22 : 1). 

ii.  Poems  and  psalms  more  commonly  considered  Davidic. 

In  addition  to  the  elegies  already  noted  (2  Sam.  1 :  19-27 ; 
3:33  f.;  18:33;  cf.  pp.  74,  ii. ;  76,  ii. ;  78,  ii.  6.),  the  following 
are  the  more  probable  Davidic  poems. 

a.  2  Sam.  23  :  1-7.     The  Last  Words  of  David. 

h.  Psalms  3  ;  4 ;  7  ;  8  ;  18  (//2  Sam.  22) ;  23  (?) ;  24  ;  32  (?) ; 
101  and  110(?). 

iii.   Composition  of  the  historical  material  and  literary  productions. 

a.  2  Sam.  21-24,  which  interrupt  the  connection  betw^een  chap. 
20  and  1  Ki.  1-2,  it  is  inferred  were  placed  in  their  present  posi- 
tion as  appendices  after  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  had  been 
separated.  The  narrative  portions  of  these  chapters  belong  to 
the  early  Davidic  sources  (E  ?). 

b.  The  follo^ving  verses  are  editorial,  2  Sam.  21 :  2  f.  (?) ;   22  :  1. 

c.  The  following  verses  are  peculiar  to  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  = 
1  C.  11 :  10,  416-47 ;  21 :  6  f.,  16,  266-22 ;  1  (also  in  21 :  1,  ''Satan, 
etc."  ;   and  in  vs.  25,  "  six  hundred,"  ''gold,  etc."). 

d.  2  Sam.  22  is  parallel  to  Ps.  18. 

e.  The  poem  in  2  Sam.  23 :  1-7  is  considered  by  many  scholars 
to-day  as  non-Davidic.  The  following  reasons  are  suggested  for 
this  view :  (a)  it  is  unlikel}^  that  David  would  have  described 
himself  as  the  last  clause  of  vs.  1  does ;  (6)  vss.  6  f .  with,  their 
eschatological  conceptions  favor  a  late  date;  and  (c)  cf.  the 
possibihty  of  vs.  1  =  an  imitation  of  Num.  24 : 3,  15.  Schmidt 
favors  the  time  of  Hezekiah  or  Josiah  as  its  date  (cf.  his  Poets, 
370.  Note  "close  to  the  Babylonian  exile"  or  even  later  =  Kent, 
Songs,  etc.,  67  f.).  Cheyne  places  it  in  the  Exile  (cf.  his  Origin 
Psal.,  205  f.).  By  others  it  is  assigned  even  later  to  a  post-exilic 
date  (cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  204  f.     H.  P.  Smith,  Sam.  381). 

On  the  other  hand,  an  early  date  for  the  poem  has  its  defenders ; 
e.g.  the  time  of  the  United  Kingdom  though  not  by  David  (G.  A. 
Smith,  Early  Poet.  Isr.  95) ;  McCurdy  considers  the  personal 
groundwork  to  be  undoubtedly  Davidic,  though  its  present  form 
may  date  from  a  later  time.  Note  its  naivete  and  unadorned 
ruggedness  of  style,  which  point  to  its  originality   (HPM,  iii. 


80        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

p.  52  =  §  909).     Duhm  admits  the  possibility  of  Davidic  author- 
ship but  thinks  it  uncertain  (EBi.  iii.  3797). 

/.  In  addition  to  the  following  extended  note  on  the  more  prob- 
able Davidic  psalms,  cf .  introductory  notes,  pp.  68  ff. 

(a)  Ps.  18  (//2  Sam.  22)  is  generally  regarded  as  the  most  cer- 
tain of  the  psalms  of  David,  being  accepted  by  those  who  admit 
few  if  any  others  as  his  production.  The  grounds  appealed  to 
are :  (a)  its  contents  which  harmonize  best  with  the  period  of 
the  early  monarchy ;  and  (6)  its  vigor  and  freshness  of  style.  It 
is  also  maintained  (c)  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  psalm  (not 
even  vss.  27,  49  f.,  which  are  generally  cited  against  this  view), 
inconsistent  with  Davidic  authorship.  Cf.  Ewald,  Delitzsch, 
Kirkpatrick,  Davison,  etc. 

Among  the  arguments  against  Davidic  authorship  are:  (a) 
the  detailed  theophany  (vss.  7-17),  it  is  claimed,  is  based  on  pro- 
phetic descriptions  (cf.  Mic.  1;  Habak.  3;  Ps.  50),  which  David 
and  his  age  were  incompetent  to  elaborate;  and  (6)  the  self- 
approbation  (vss.  19-26),  which  seems  inappropriate  to  David, 
who  at  least  was  conscious  of  his  faults.  (Cf.  HPM,  iii.  p.  51, 
§  909.)  McCurdy's  conclusion  is,  that  if  the  spirit  of  this  psalm 
is  David's,  the  elaboration  can  hardly  be  his.  Cf.  Cheyne, 
Kautzsch,  Wellhausen,  W.  R.  Smith,  Kent,  etc. 

(b)  Kirkpatrick  in  his  Psalms  (Camb.  B.)  assigns  more  psalms 
to  David,  the  following  being  their  chronological  classification.^ 

Psalms  during  David's  Residence  in  SauVs  Court 

5.   Or  possibly  before  the  outbreak  of  Absalom's  rebelhon; 
(cf.  however  vs.  7  may  imply  the  Temple). 
11. 
12.   Or  possibly  while  David  was  an  outlaw. 

Psalms  while  David  was  persecuted  by  Saul  and  while  an  Outlaw 

59?  Cf.  ISam.  19:8ff. 
56.    Cf.  1  Sam.  21 :  10  ff. 

54?  Cf.  1  Sam.  23 :  19  (possibly  placed  in  his  mouth  by  a  later 
psalmist). 
16. 

17.    Cf .  1  Sam.  23  :  25  ff. 
57?  Cf.  1  Sam.  24. 
7.    Cf.  1  Sam.  24  and  26. 
13?  Cf.  1  Sam.  27:1. 

35  ?  Possibly  sometime  during  his  persecution. 
40?  and  70  ( =  40  :  13-17).     Close  of  outlaw  life. 

1  For  other  classifications  of  Davidic  psalms  and  references,  cf.  p.  71. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   UNITED   KINGDOM      81 

Psalms  after  the  Kingdom  was  secured 

15;   24;    101  and  110.     Cf.  2  Sam.  6. 

18  (//2  Sam.  22).     Cf.  2  Sam.  7. 

9-10.     Cf.  2  Sam.  8. 

60.    Cf.  2  Sam.  8  :  13. 

32  and  51.     Cf.  2  Sam.  12. 

41  ?  Before  Absalom's  rebellion. 

Psalms  connected  with  Absalom's  Rebellion 

3  and  63.     During  the  flight ;  cf .  2  Sam.  15-16. 
4.    Perhaps  at  Mahanaim.     Cf .  2  Sam.  17  :  24  ff. 
62? 

27.    At  least  vss.  1-6 ;  probably  before  the  battle.     Cf .  2  Sam.  18. 
61  ?  After  the  victory. 
8.    Later  period  of  David's  life. 

Psalms  possibly  Davidic,  whose  Setting  cannot  be  determined 

6? 

14?  If  by  David  later  than  Ps.  7. 

23?  Note  against  Davidic  authorship  vs.  6  (=  the  Temple?). 

(20-21).     If  in  the  time  of  David,  probably  not  written  by  him. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  facts  recorded  in  2  Sam.  21-24  evidently  belong  to  the 
earlier  part  of  David's  reign ;   e.g.  21 : 1-14  either  before  or  after 

2  Sam.  9.  21 :  15-22  +  23  :  8-39  (  =  its  continuation)  perhaps 
after  2  Sam.  5.     Chap.  24  perhaps  after  2  Sam.  12. 

3.  Solomon  c.  980-937  b.c. 

i.  Sources  for  the  history  of  Solomon's  reign.  =  1  Ki.  2 :  12-11 :  43 
//I  Chr.  29 :  23-25 ;  2  Chr.  1:1-9:31  =  [1  Ki.  2 :  12-46  (with 
vs.  12  cf.  1  C.  29 :  23-25) ;    3 :  1-15  (vss.  4-15//2  C.  1 :  1-13) ; 

3  :  16-4  :  34  (with  4  :  26,  21a,  cf.  2  C.  9  :  25  f .) ;  5  (//2  C.  2) ; 
6  (cf.  2  C.  3  : 1-14,  abridged) ;  7  (vss.  13-51 //2  C.  2 :  13  f .  +  3  : 
15-5:1);  8  (//2  C.  5:2-7:10);  9  (cf.  2  C.  7:11-8:18);  10 
(//2  C.  9  : 1-28  and  1 :  14-17) ;   11  (vss.  41-43//2  C.  9  :  29-31.]  ^ 

ii.  Literature  possibly  Solomonic. 

a.  The  nucleus  of  (a)  Prov.  10 :  1-22 :  16  and  (6)  chaps.  25-29. 
Cf.  pp.  116  ff. 

b.  Psalms  2;    45    and   1(?)   according  to    Kirkpatrick.      Cf. 
Camb.  B.  in  loc. 

^  Cf.  also  1  Ki.  1 : 1-2 :  11,  for  the  events  leading  to  Solomon's  accession. 

Q 


82        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

iii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources  and  literary  notes, 

a.  For  1  Ki.  2 :  12-46  as  a  part  of  the  early  Davidic  narratives 
included  with  2  Sam.  9-20,  cf.  p.  78,  iii.  a. 

b.  The  non-Deuteronomic  (and  other  non-editorial)  material 
in  1  Ki.  3-11  may  be  designated  as  pre-Deuteronomic.  It  is  a 
question  among  scholars  to  what  extent  it  belongs  to  the  ''Book 
of  the  Acts  of  Solomon  "  (11 :  41)  and  to  what  extent  to  Prophetical 
narratives.  According  to  Kautzsch  (LOT,  70,  240)  and  Kittel 
(Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  54  ff.)  it  is  based  largely  upon  the  former.  Ac- 
cording to  Driver,  3 : 4-13,  15,  16-28  and  10 : 1-13  (possibly 
also  5 : 1-5  and  8 :  15-19)  =  Prophetical  narratives,  relatively 
early.     LOT,  191. 

c.  According  to  some  scholars,  1  Ki.  6-7  were  derived  from  the 
Temple  archives. 

d.  The  following  is  the  Deuteronomic  (R^)  material  in  1  Ki. 
2:12-11:43  =  2:  27(?);  3 : 2  f.,  14;  4:29-34(?);  5:1-5  (in 
the  main) ;  6  :  7,  11-13  (14)  (possibly  also  vss.  18-22*,  28,  29-30, 
32,  35,  38*) ;  8  (based  to  some  extent  probably  on  earlier  material) ; 
9:1-9,  19-21  (?);  10  :  11  f.  (?),  14  f.  (?),  23-25,  27  ;  11:1-13, 
32-39  (or  29-39)  in  part,  41-43.  For  variation  in  vss.  assigned 
to  R^,  cf.  Comms.,  Introds.,  etc.  [The  following  is  possibly  R°^; 
1  Ki.  4:20-26;  6:1(?);  8:44-51  (or  46-49?);  9:6-9(?). 
Note  in  vss.  24  f .  in  4  :  20-26,  the  expression  ''beyond  the  River" 

=  west  of  the  Euphrates  (cf.  Ezra  4 :  10  ff.,  etc.),  impljdng  the 
standpoint  of  one  living  in  Babylonia;  hence  as  late  at  least  as 
the  Exile.]     For  variations  cf.  Introds.,  Comms.,  etc. 

e.  The  Priestly  editorial  additions  (R^)  in  1  Ki.  2:12-11:43 
=  6:  11-14(?)  (cf.  above  n.  d,  under  R^) ;  in  vs.  16  ("the  most 
holy  place");  7:48-50(?);  8:46-5,  6  ("the  most  holy  place") 
and  traces  in  vs.  1.     See  pp.  267  f.,  v.  k. 

f.  The  following  material  is  peculiar  to  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  — 
1  C.  29 :  23-25  (largely) ;  2  C.  1  :  1  f.,  36-6a  (also  other  changes 
in  vss.  1-13) ;  2 :  17  (also  additions  and  changes  in  vss.  4-7  and 
9-15);  3:16,  14  (also  in  vss.  5-9);  4:1,  8  f.;  5:116-13a;  6: 
13,40-42;  7:1-3,6,11-15*;  8  :  3,  46,  5*,  116,  12-16*  ;  9:18*, 
29.     Note  in  2  C.  1 :  15  ("and  gold"). 

Notice  2  C.  2  :  13  f.  =  //  to  1  Ki.  7  :  13  f.  with  Ch.  additions. 

g.  The  LXX  of  1  Ki.  8 :  12  f.  (which  is  placed  in  vs.  53  in  that 
version),  gives  a  different  (poetical)  reading,  which  is  attributed 
to  "the  Book  of  the  Song."  As  the  Hebrew  words  for  "the  song" 
and  "Jashar"  are  much  ahke,  it  is  inferred  by  many  that  this 
poetical  fragment  was  taken  from  the  "Book  of  Jashar"  (cf.  on 
this  book,  p.  43,  iv.  6.).  Cf.,  e.g.  LOT,  192.  W.  R.  Smith,  0.  T. 
Jew.  Church  2,  124,  433  ff.,  etc. 

h.  With  2  Chr.  6 :  41  f.,  cf.  Ps.  132 :  8  ff. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD   OF   UNITED    KINGDOM      83 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  According  to  Biblical  chronology  the  length  of  Solomon's 
reign  was  40  years  (1  Ki.  11 :  42).  This,  however,  may  be  a  round 
number  indicating  an  indefinite  period.  Cf.  Ap.  C,  p.  334  (6).  The 
dates  given  above  depend  upon  those  adopted  approximately  for 
the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David.  Other  dates  suggested  for  Solomon's 
reign  vary  from  977  to  c.  960  B.C.  for  its  beginning  and  from  937 
to  c,  930  B.C.  for  its  close. 

b.  The  Pharaoh,  whose  daughter  Solomon  married  (1  Ki. 
3:1;  cf .  9  :  16)  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  Pasebchanu  II, 
the  last  king  of  the  twenty-first  dynasty  which  ended  c.  950  B.C. 
Breasted,  however,  identifies  him  with  Shishak  (Sheshonk),  cf. 
below  n.  /.     See  his  Hist.  Egypt,  362. 

c.  For  the  date  of  Hiram  of  Tyre  referred  to  in  1  Ki.  5  :  1  ff .,  cf. 
p.  77,  iii.  b. 

d.  For  the  possibility  of  the  number  480  in  1  Ki.  6:1  being 
a  part  of  an  artificial  scheme  of  chronology,  cf.  Ap.  C,  pp.  341  f. 

e.  According  to  1  Ki.  6  :  37  f .  the  Temple  was  begun  in  the  4th 
year  of  Solomon's  reign  and  completed  in  the  11th.  On  the  basis 
of  the  chronology  adopted  above  the  dates  =  c.  976-c.  970  B.C. 
Other  3'ears  suggested  for  its  completion  vary  from  c.  963  to  c. 
950  B.C. 

/.  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  referred  to  in  1  Ki.  11  :  40;  cf .  14 : 
25  f.,  undoubtedly  means  Shoshenk  (or  Sheshonk)  the  first  king 
of  the  twenty-second  dynasty,  which  began  c.  950  B.C.  His 
reign  lasted  21  years,  i.e.  c.  950-c.  930  B.C.  The  dates  given  in 
Breasted's  Hist.  Egypt,  360  ff.,  433,  are  c.  945-924  B.C. 

V.  The  following  additional  literature  is  assigned  by  many  scholars 
to  the  period  of  the  United  Kingdom,  especially  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon,  i.e.  c.  1020-937  b.c. 

a.  The  Blessing  of  Jacob,  Gen.  49 :  2-27.     See  pp.  72  f. 

b.  The  Song  of  Triumph  at  the  Red  Sea,  Ex.  15 :  I-IS.^ 

c.  The  Balaam  oracles  (in  the  main)  in  Num.  23 :  7-24 :  19.^ 

d.  The  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  (cf.  Num.  21 :  14  f.).^ 

e.  The  Book  of  Jashar,  of  which  the  following  portions  have  been 
preserved.  Josh.  10 :  126-13a  (see  p.  41,  ii.) ;  2  Sam.  1 :  19-27  (see 
p.  74,  ii.)  and  possibly  1  Ki.  8 :  12  f.  (LXX,  cf.  p.  82,  iii.  g).^ 

1  Cf .  Driver,  Ex.  131.  For  later  dates  assigned,  cf .  pp.  197,  ii.  5.  d ;  265, 
iv.  6.  c.     See  also  note  pp.  35  f.,  ii.  b. 

2  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  43  (§  895).  Kautzsch,  LOT,  16  f.,  177. 
G.  A.  Smith,  Early  Poet.  Isr.  71,  etc.     Cf.  p.  41,  iv.  c. 

3  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  50  (§  906).  Kautzsch,  LOT,  2,  15,  177, 
etc.     See  also  pp.  40  f.,  iv.  b. 

*  Cf.  McCurdy  and  Kautzsch,  Ibid.     See  also  p.  43,  iv.  b. 


84        AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

/.  2  Samuel,  chaps.  9-20  +  1  Kings,  chaps.  1-2  (in  part).^ 

Some  of  the  other  portions  of  literature  assigned  to  this  period 
are :  — 

g.  The  Book  of  the  Covenant  (Ex.  20:22-23:19,  20-33),  at 
least  the  usage  embodied  in  it.^ 

h.  The  short  poems  on  Jacob  and  Esau  in  Gen.  25 :  23 ;  27 : 
27-29,  39-40.3 

1  Cf.  Moore,  EBi,  ii.  2075.  McFadyen,  Introd.  91  f.  Kennedy, 
Sam.  23  f.,  etc.     See  also  p.  48 ;  cf.  78,  iii.  a. 

2  Cf.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  174  f.,  499.  Cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  131  f., 
537  =  early  times  of  Divided  Kingdom.     See  also  pp.  37  f.,  iv.  b. 

3  Cf.  Schmidt,  Poets,  301  ff. 


VII.  A.  The  Period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom.  Introduc- 
tory AND  Explanatory  Notes  to  the  History  and 
Literature  of  this  Period 

The  history  and  literature  relating  to  the  period  of  the 
Divided  Kingdom  are  found  in  the  books  of  Kings,  Chroni- 
cles; .historical  and  biographical  sections  in  Isaiah  and 
Jeremiah ;  the  prophecies  of  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah  1-39 
(in  part),  Micah,  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk 
and  Ezekiel  (in  part) ;  collections  of  Proverbs  ( ?) ;  Deu- 
teronomy ;  psalms  ( ?)  and  various  poems.  The  most  of 
these  literary  productions  had  their  origin  in  this  period, 
especially  the  prophetical  writings,  Deuteronomy  and  the 
sources  of  the  books  of  Kings. ^ 

1.   Historical  Writings 

A.  1  Kings  12-2  Kings  25  :  21.^ 

B.  2  Chronicles  10  :  1-36  :  21.^ 

C.  Isaiah  36-39  //  to  2  Ki.  18 :  17-20 :  19  (except  Isa. 
38 :  9-20).  This  section  in  Isaiah  was  derived  by  the  com- 
piler of  this  prophetical  book  from  the  book  of  Kings. 

D.  Jeremiah  52  :  1-27  ;  38  :  28?>-39  :  9.  These  sections 
in  Jeremiah  are  parallel  to  2  Ki.  24:  18-25:21,  and  were 
derived  by  the  compiler  of  this  prophetical  book  from  Kings. 

E.  Cf.  also  such  biographical  sections  in  Jeremiah  as 
chaps.  26-29 ;  34-38,  etc.,  the  authorship  of  which  has  been 
assigned  with  a  good  deal  of  probability  to  Baruch.  See 
p.  193,  3.  a. 

2.   Prophetical  Writings 

The  importance  of  the  prophetical  writings  in  supplenient- 
ing  the  historical  books,  and  thus  serving  to  bring  the  differ- 

1  For  other  literature  assigned  to  this  period  by  different  scholars,  cf . 
pp.  134-166. 

"^  For  introductory  notes  on  the  structure  and  sources  of  the  books  of 
Kings,  and  for  1  Ki.  1-11,  see  United  Kingdom,  pp.  55  ff.,  77  f.,  81  ff- 

3  For  notes  on  the  structure  and  sources  of  Chronicles,  and  for  1  Chr.  10- 
2  Chr.  9,  see  United  Kingdom,  pp.  63  ff.,  74  ff.    For  1  Chr.  1-9,  cf .  304,  iv.  i. 

85 


86        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

ent  periods  and  occasions  to  which  they  belong  into  clearer 
light,  has  been  referred  to  previously.^ 

This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Hebrew  prophets  were 
more  than  predictors.  Primarily  they  were  great  preachers 
of  righteousness  to  the  people  of  their  own  day,  and  as  such 
they  dealt  with  the  material,  social  and  political  aspects  of 
the  nation's  affairs,  as  well  as  with  its  moral  and  religious 
condition.  Judged  from  the  modern  standpoint  they  were 
social  reformers  and  statesmen  as  well  as  religious  leaders. 
Their  messages  were  generally  given  first  of  all  orally,  and 
in  so  far  as  they  have  been  preserved  are  found  in  our 
canonical,  prophetical  books. 

Compare,  however,  Ezekiel  and  Zechariah  1-8,  etc.,  which  bear 
the  marks  of  written  rather  than  spoken  prophecy .^ 

Notice  also  that  no  collections  of  prophetic  messages  from  such 
great  prophets  as  Samuel,  EHjah  and  Elisha  have  been  preserved. 
Whatever  utterances  are  attributed  to  them  are  found  in  the  his- 
torical books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.^ 

In  reference  to  the  chronological  arrangement  of  the 
prophetic  messages  the  following  facts  need  to  be  taken  into 
consideration :  — 

a.  In  many  instances  probably  the  prophet's  utterances 
were  not  committed  to  writing  till  some  time  after  their 
deliverance ;  this  being  done  either  by  the  prophet  himself, 
or  by  his  disciples,  or  possibly  in  some  cases  by  some  one 
more  removed,  i.e.  either  outside  the  immediate  prophetic 
circle,  or  later  in  time.  Hence  these  prophetic  messages, 
as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  often  represent  abstracts  or 
synopses  of  the  original  discourses,  or  possibly  in  some 
instances  an  approximate  reproduction  of  them. 

The  directions  of  Jeremiah  to  Baruch,  his  disciple  (Jer.  36  :  4  ff.) 
have  an  important  bearing  on  this  point.  Baruch  was  directed 
to  write  the  prophetic  messages  of  Jeremiah,  extending  over  23 
years  (vss.  1  f.).  These  in  our  present  book  of  Jeremiah  form 
about  12  chaps.,  i.e.,  an  average  of  a  chapter  for  each  two  years. 
A  natural  conclusion  from  this  is,  that  in  a  chapter  or  section  we 

1  Cf .  the  statement  in  the  Preface,  pp.  x  f . 

2  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  380  £f.  (§§  1350  ff.).     Gray,  Introd.  169  f. 

3  It  is  to  be  noted  that,  in  a  number  of  the  prophecies,  sections  of  bio- 
graphical or  autobiographical  character  are  also  found ;  e.g.  Jer.  26-29 ; 
34,  etc.     See  p.  85,  1.  E. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  87 

have  the  summation  of  Jeremiah's  characteristic  teaching  and 
pubHc  utterances,  extending  over  a  considerable  period.  It  seems 
reasonable  to  believe,  therefore,  that  the  same  fact  holds  good  in 
reference  to  many  other  prophecies.^ 

h.  Many  of  the  prophecies  have  chronological  headings, 
giving  the  general  period,  such  as  reigns  of  kings,  to  which 
they  belong  (e.g.  Amos  1:1;  Hosea  1:1,  etc.).  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Psalms  and  Proverbs,  they  were  probably  added 
by  the  editors  and  compilers  of  the  different  collections  of 
prophecies,  and  not  by  the  prophets  themselves. 

c.  The  chapters  and  sections  in  some  of  the  prophecies 
are  not  arranged  in  chronological  order,  especially  Isa.  1-39 
and  Jeremiah.  Compare  for  example  Isa.  6,  which  describes 
the  prophet's  call,  but  it  is  preceded  by  chaps.  1-5,  contain- 
ing messages  subsequent  to  that  date. 

d.  Occasionally  anonymous  prophecies,  and  fragments  of 
prophetic  discourses  of  later  date,  are  found  attached  to  well- 
known  prophetic  writings  of  earlier  times  or  inserted  in 
them.     Cf.  Isa.  40-55 ;  Isa.  56-66  and  Isa.  13  :  1-14  :  23,  etc. 

e.  Another  question  bearing  on  the  chronological  order 
of  the  prophetical  writings  is  the  probability  of  earlier  pro- 
ductions in  some,  and  perhaps  many,  instances  being  sup- 
plemented in  later  times,  either  to  modify  or  adapt  the  orig- 
inal message  to  new  conditions,  ^'or  for  other  purposes  of 
edification."  For  example,  an  original  message  predicting 
punishment  to  a  nation  being  fulfilled,  and  thus  its  object 
being  served,  might  well  be  supplemented  by  words  of  hope 
and  promise  for  the  future  to  meet  the  new  situation. 

Israel  had  ''no  idea  of  what  we  call  'literary  property.'  The 
question  was  not  in  what  terms  a  prophet  of  Jehovah  had  spoken 
in  former  times,  but  whether  those  terms  were  still  fitted  to  fulfil 
the  religious  purpose  which  he  once  meant  to  serve.  If  this  did 
not  appear  to  be  the  case,  it  was  regarded  as  not  only  perfectly 
right,  but  as  a  sacred  duty,  to  modify  the  original  form  of  expres- 
sion, to  give  a  milder  turn  to  what  was  too  harsh  and  no  longer 
apphcable  to  a  differently  constituted  age,  to  expand  and  state 
more  clearly  what  was  too  concise  or  obscure,  to  introduce  matter 

1  Cf.  further  Kautzseh,  LOT,  49  f.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  11  f. 
Gray,  Introd.  171  ff.,  etc.  Note,  however,  Peake's  conclusion  that  "it 
does  not  follow  that  the  whole  of  Jeremiah's  utterances"  (i.e.  up  to  this 
date)  "found  a  place  in  the  roll."     See  his  Jer.  i.  57  ff. ;   ii.  151  ff. 


88        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

that  was  wanting  in  the  original  but  indispensable  for  a  later 

age."  ' 

Leading  Old  Testament  scholars  to-day  believe  that  there 
are  numerous  insertions  such  as  these,  and  modifications  of 
the  earlier  prophecies.  The  extent,  however,  to  which  such 
revision  was  carried  is  a  point  upon  which  there  is  wide 
divergence  of  opinion.  The  most  important  additions  of 
this  character,  according  to  the  opinion  of  various  scholars, 
are  noted  in  this  volume  and  are  grouped  on  pages  306-308. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  fact  of  such  additions  does  not 
affect  the  question  of  inspiration,  for  the  problem  which  is 
presented  for  decision  is  not  so  much  one  of  authenticity  as 
of  authorship. 

''But  whether  a  Book  be  authentic,  in  the  technical  meaning 
of  the  word,  is  of  small  interest  compared  with  its  authenticity 
as  vision,  as  truth  and  as  the  revelation  of  God."  ^ 

In  view  of  these  facts  the  chronological  headings  of  the 
pre-exilic  prophecies  need  to  be  tested  and  supplemented  by 
the  data  furnished  by  the  different  chapters  and  sections 
themselves,  just  as  in  the  case  of  determining  the  dates  of 
particular  psalms  and  sections  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  (cf .  pp. 
68  ff.,  116  ff.).  Owing,  however,  to  the  clearer  historical 
allusions  in  the  prophecies,  and  the  fact  that  the  language 
and  conceptions  of  undoubted  portions  can  be  used  as  a  basis 
of  comparison,  conclusions  usually  of  greater  certainty  than 
in  the  case  of  the  psalms  and  proverbs  can  be  reached. 

A.  Amos.  This  is  the  first  of  the  written  prophecies. 
Amos  prophesied  according  to  the  title  (1:1)  in  the  reigns 
of  Uzziah  of  Judah  (782  ?-c.  740  b.c.)  and  Jeroboam  II  of 
Israel  (781-740  b.c).  This  is  confirmed  by  reference  to 
Jeroboam  in  the  prophecy  (7 :  10  f.).  The  further  chrono- 
logical statement  of  the  heading,  'Hwo  years  before  the 
earthquake,"  does  not  help  in  determining  the  exact  date, 
since  no  allusion  is  found  to  it  in  the  historical  records  of 
the  time.     Cf .  p.  334,  n.  ^ 

1  Cf.  Kautzseh  in  HDB,  extra  vol.  6716.  See  also  Gray,  Introd.  177. 
Moore,  LOT,  166  f.  Note  also  the  discriminating  discussion  in  LOT, 
306  f. 

2  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  217. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  89 

This  earthquake  is  also  mentioned  in  a  late  prophetic  writing 
(cf.  Zech.  14  :  5)  as  occurring  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah.  There  may 
be  also  a  reference  to  it  in  Isa.  9 :  10. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  in  8 :  9  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  is  mentioned  in  Assyrian  records  as 
occurring  June  15,  763  b.c.  The  record  of  plagues  in  the  same 
source  as  prevaihng  in  the  years  765  and  759  b.c.  may  also  be 
referred  to  in  Amos  4 :  10.^ 

From  the  references  (a)  to  Israel's  supremacy  over  the 
land  from  Lebanon  to  the  Dead  Sea  (6  :  146) ;  (b)  the  destruc- 
tion of  Gath  by  Uzziah  (recorded  in  2  Chr.  26  :  6),  which,  it  is 
claimed,  is  presupposed  in  Am.  1 :  6-8,  where  this  city  is  not 
mentioned  (cf .  also  6:8);  (c)  Jeroboam's  conquest  of  Moab 
(2  Ki.  14  :  25),  which  is  implied  in  Am.  2  :  3,  where  ''judge" 
and  not  ''king"  is  mentioned  as  the  ruler  of  Moab  ;  ^  (d)  the 
prosperous  condition  of  the  Kingdom  reflected  in  the  proph- 
ecy (cf.  3  :  15 ;  6  :  3  ff.) ;  and  (e)  the  conscious  feeling 
of  security  from  outside  attack,  —  the  prophecy  has  been 
assigned  to  the  later  rather  than  the  earlier  part  of  Jero- 
boam's reign,  after  he  had  waged  his  successful  wars 
(2  Ki.  14:25). 

Some  scholars  think  there  is  a  reference  to  the  conquest  of  Syria 
in  6  :  13  (cf.  2  Ki.  14  :  28),  according  to  the  emendation  of  the  text 
by  Gratz  —  ''we  have  taken  Lo-Debar  and  Karnaim."  ^ 

The  prophecy  accordingly  is  generally  dated  between  760 
and  750  b.c. 

Though  Amos  was  a  native  of  Judah  (1 : 1,  cf.  7  :  12  f.)  his 
mission  was  to  the  Northern  Kingdom,  where  his  prophecies 
were  uttered  (7  :  15 ;  cf.  with  7  :  10). 

The  authenticity  of  9 : 8(86)-15  is  questioned,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  scattered  verses,  by  many  scholars.  See  further,  notes 
p.  142,  iii.  c.  d.* 

^  Cf.  Comms.  in  loc. 

2  This,  however,  is  by  no  means  certain,  as  the  term  "judge"  is  some- 
times applied  to  a  king  (cf.  Mic.  5:1;  see  also  2  Sam.  8 :  15,  etc.),  and 
as  it  is  not  sure  from  2  Ki.  14 :  25  that  Moab  was  included  in  Jeroboam's 
conquests.     See  Comms.  in  loc. 

3  See  Comms.  in  loc. 

*  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Amos, 
LOT,  313  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  240  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  50  ff.  McFad- 
yen,  Introd.  188  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  329  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  210  ff.  Moore, 
LOT,  194  ff.     HDB,  i.  85  ff.  (Taylor).     EBi,  i.  147  ff .,  iii.  3888  f .  (Cheyne). 


90        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

B.  Rosea.  According  to  the  heading  (1:1)  this  collection 
of  prophecies  dates  from  the  period  represented  in  the  king- 
dom of  Judah  by  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  to  Hezekiah  [c.  782- 
c.  690  (?)  B.C.],  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  II  (781-740  B.C.).  These  two  equations  of  time, 
it  will  be  noticed,  are  only  partially  parallel.  This  inex- 
actness is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  the  title  (1:1)  is 
editorial. 

This  discrepancy  in  the  parallel  dates  is  not  necessarily  so 
marked  as  it  at  first  sight  seems  to  be,  as  the  first  date  given  (the 
reigns  of  Uzziah  to  Hezekiah)  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
Hosea's  prophetic  activity  extended  over  all  the  time  included 
in  these  reigns.  A  career  embracing  the  latter  part  of  Uzziah's 
reign  and  the  beginning  of  Hezekiah's  would  be  sufficient  to  jus- 
tify such  a  general  editorial  method  of  dating.  It  is  very  certain, 
however,  that  none  of  Hosea's  messages  contained  in  this  proph- 
ecy belong  as  late  as  Hezekiah's  reign,  even  though  this  king's 
accession  is  placed  earlier  than  the  year  to  which  it  is  assigned  in 
this  volume  (i.e.  c.  719  B.C.).     See,  however,  the  view  p.  91,  n.  ^, 

The  prophecy  itself,  which  has  two  clearly  defined  sections, 
viz.  chaps.  1-3  and  4-14,  furnishes  facts  from  which  the 
dates  can  be  more  definitely  determined.  The  first  division, 
chaps.  1-3,  mainly  in  the  form  of  narrative,  belongs  clearly 
to  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II  as  (a)  there  is  the  same  general 
background  as  in  Amos,  viz.  material  prosperity  and  social 
evils  (cf.  especially  2 : 2  ff.  with  Amos  2:6  ff. ;  5:11  ff. ; 
6  :  3  ff.,  etc.) ;  and  (6)  the  house  of  Jehu  is  still  reigning  (1 :  4), 
which  was  terminated  with  Jeroboam's  son  and  successor, 
who  was  assassinated  after  a  reign  of  six  months  (2  Ki.  15 : 
8-12). 

From  the  description  of  captivity  (2 :  9  ff.),  which  is  repre- 
sented apparently  as  more  impending  than  in  Amos  (cf. 
Amos  5 :  27),  it  is  generally  inferred  that  this  portion  of  the 

Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Amos,  espee.  Int.  Crit.  (W.  R.  Harper) ;  Camb. 
B.  (Driver) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  i.  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Cen.  B.  (Horton). 
Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  17  ff.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  14  f.,  63  ff.,  478  f. 
W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.2  xv  ff.,  120  ff.  MeCurdy,  HPM,  i.  pp.  344  ff. 
(§§302  ff.).  Kirkpatriek,  Doct.  Prophs.  83  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii. 
320  ff.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  79  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  211  ff. 
Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  28,  354  f.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  35  ff.  CorniU, 
Prophs.  Isr.  37  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  23  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
151  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  105  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  91 

prophecy  belongs  later  in  Jeroboam's  reign,  and  so  may  be 
dated  with  probability  c.  750-740  b.c. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Davidson,  however,  that  chaps.  1-3,  though 
referring  to  events  in  the  early  part  of  the  prophet's  history,  may 
have  been  composed  at  a  later  time  as  an  introduction  to  chaps. 
4-14.1 

The  section  chaps.  4-14  is  usually  assigned  to  the  stormy 
period  following  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II  (cf .  2  Ki.  15  :  8  ff .) 
for  the  following  reasons :  (a)  the  social  evils  depicted 
in  Amos  and  Hosea  1-3  have  evidently  reached  a  much 
acuter  stage,  and  captivity  is  at  hand  (cf .  4  :  12  ff. ;  8  :  5  f . ; 

9  :  15,  etc.) ;  and  (6)  there  are  allusions  to  the  rapid  dynastic 
changes,  corresponding  to  what  is  known  to  have  been  the 
condition  in  Israel  after  Jeroboam's  reign  (cf .  7:7;   8:4; 

10  :  3,  etc.,  with  2  Ki.  15  :  10  iT.). 

On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  quite  certain  that  chaps.  4-14 
belong  before  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  invasion,  c.  735  b.c. 
(cf.  2  Ki.  16 :  5  f. ;  Isa.  7:1  ff.),  as  no  reference  is  made  in 
these  chapters  to  it.  This  conclusion  is  also  confirmed  by 
allusions  to  Gilead  as  still  intact  (5:1;  6:8,  etc.),  whose 
inhabitants  and  those  of  Galilee  were  deported  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  IV  in  734-733  b.c.  (cf.  2  Ki.  15  :  29).  Assyria  is  here 
described  not  as  an  enemy  (as  it  became  in  connection  with 
the  Syro-Ephraimitish  league ;  cf.  2  Ki.  15  :  29 ;  16  :  7  ff.), 
but  as  a  false  source  of  support  (5 :  13 ;  7:11;  8:9,  etc.), 
which  answers  well  to  this  time,  when  there  were  rival 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  parties  in  the  Kingdom. 

These  chapters  accordingly  may  be  dated  with  much 
certainty  c.  740-736  b.c.^ 

The  allusions  to  the  king  of  Assyria  (?)  as  *'Jareb"  (5:13; 
10 :  6),  and  to  the  capture  of  Beth-Arbel  by  Shalman  (10 :  14), 
are  too  obscure  and  uncertain  to  have  any  definite  bearing  on  the 
date  of  the  prophecy.  Some  scholars  think  the  allusion  in  5 :  13, 
etc.  ("Jareb")  is  to  the  tribute  paid  by  Menahem  to  Assyria  in 
738  B.C.  (2  Ki.  15:19  f.).^ 

From  (a)  reference  to  Israel  as  ''the  land"  (1:2);    (6)  to  its 

1  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  420.     Gray,  Introd.  205  f. 

2  While  this  is  the  commonly  accepted  conclusion  of  the  date  of  chaps. 
4-14,  cf.  the  view  that  these  chaps,  reflect  the  condition  of  Israel  between 
730-722  B.C.  in  Whitehouse,  Isa.  i.  pp.  17  ff. 

3  See  Comms.  in  loc. 


92        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

king  as  ''our  king"  (7:5);  (c)  locations  mentioned  which  are 
those  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  (5:1,8;  4  :  15 ;  1 :  4,  etc.) ;  and 
(d)  the  social  conditions  described,  together  with  the  prophet's 
emotion  expressed  over  the  impending  destruction  of  the  kingdom 
(e.g.  11:8  ff.)>  it  is  inferred  that  Hosea  was  a  native  of  Israel. 
Compare  also  the  fact  that  the  allusions  to  Judah  are  incidental 
(e.g.  4  :  15 ;  5  :  5,  10,  12,  etc.)-  But  many  of  these  verses  concern- 
ing Judah  are  questioned  by  some  scholars. 

The  authenticity  of  14 : 1-8  +  vs.  9  is  questioned  by  a  number 
of  scholars;  also  scattered  verses  through  the  prophecy.  Cf. 
further  notes,  pp.  143,  iii.  e.  f. ;  145,  iii.  g} 

C.  Isaiah,  chapters  1-39.  The  heading  (1:1)  places 
Isaiah's  prophetic  activity  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham, 
Ahaz  and  Hezekiah  of  Judah.  Only  the  last  year  of  Uzziah's 
reign  is  included  in  this  period,  as  Isaiah's  ministry  began 
in  that  year,  c.  740  b.c.  (cf.  Isa.  6:1). 

The  latest  date  in  the  prophet's  career  which  can  with 
certainty  be  determined  is  701  B.C.,  viz.  the  invasion  of 
Judah  by  Sennacherib  (cf.  2  Ki.  18 :  13  if. ;  Isa.  36  f.)  to 
which  a  considerable  group  of  Isaiah's  prophecies  belongs. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  any  are  later  than  this  date  though 
it  is  not  impossible  that  some  few  may  be. 

Some  scholars  for  example  assign  chap.  23  to  c.  685  b.c.^ 

The  fact  has  already  been  referred  to  that  the  prophecies  of 
Isaiah  are  not  arranged  at  present  in  chronological  order 
(see  p.  87,  c).  The  following  may  be  adopted  as  convenient 
historical  divisions,  with  the  chapters  and  sections  which, 
with  probability,  are  to  be  assigned  to  each. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  belonging  to  the  reign  of  Jotham  and 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Hosea, 
LOT,  301  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  234  fif.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  52  f.  McFad- 
yen,  Introd.  178  ff .  Cornill,  Introd.  320  flf.  Gray,  Introd.  204  ff .  Moore, 
LOT,  188  ff.  HDB,  ii.  419  ff.  (Davidson).  EBi,  ii.  2119  ff.  (W.  R.  Smith 
and  Marti) ;  iii.  3889  f.  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Hosea,  espec. 
Int.  Crit.  (W.  R.  Harper) ;  Camb.  B.  (Cheyne) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of 
XII,  i.  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Cen.  B.  (Horton).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  19  f. 
Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  15  f.,  81  ff.  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.2  xvii  ff., 
144  ff.,  154  ff.,  406  f.  ( =  404  f.,  old  ed.).  McCurdy,  HPM,  i.  pp.  354  ff. 
(§§  312  ff.).  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  109  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
ii.  323  ff.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  83  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  221  ff. 
Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  27,  354  f.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  47  ff.  Farrar,  Minor 
Prophs.  69  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  47  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
153  ff.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  119  ff. 

2  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  pp.  357  ff.  (§§  771  ff.). 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  93 

the  heginning  of  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (c.  740-735  B.C.).     Chaps. 
6;  2-5;  9:8-10:4;   17:1-11. 

a.  Chap.  6  belongs  to  the  year  of  Uzziah's  death,  c.  740 

B.C.  (vs.  1). 

b.  Chaps.  2-5,  as  a  whole,  may  be  placed  with  probabUity 
at  the  end  of  Jotham's  reign  and  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Ahaz,  on  the  following  grounds :  (a)  the  reference  to 
*' ships  of  Tarshish"  (2:16),  a  term  applied  to  vessels 
engaged  in  commerce,  implies  that  Judah  was  still  in  posses- 
sion of  the  sea-port  of  Elath  on  the  Gulf  of  Aqabah.  This 
port  was  lost  soon  afterwards,  c.  735  b.c,  in  connection 
with  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  invasion  (cf.  2  Ki.  16  :  6  with  2 
Ki.  14:22).  (b)  The  descriptions  of  prosperity  (2:7  ff., 
cf.  3 :  16  ff.,  5 : 8  ff.)  harmonize  with  the  period  before  the 
invasion  of  the  alhed  forces ;  also  the  threat  of  coming 
judgment  (2 :  10  ff.,  3  :  1  ff.,  etc.)  imphes  that  it  has  not  yet 
come.  And  (c)  the  allusion  to  the  king  as  a  tyrannical 
child,  ruled  over  in  turn  by  the  women  of  the  harem  (3  :  12), 
points  naturally  to  the  close  of  the  vigorous  reigns  of  Uzziah 
and  Jotham,  and  to  the  inefficient  rule  of  Ahaz  (cf.  his 
reign  2  Ki.  16). 

c.  Chaps.  9  :  8-10  :  4  may  with  probability  be  placed  here, 
as  on  the  whole  they  harmonize  better  with  this  period  than 
any  other:  (a)  the  Northern  Kingdom's  proud  and  con- 
fident spirit  (9 :  9  f .)  naturally  indicates  a  date  before  the 
Syro-Ephraimitish  war  resulted  disastrously  to  it  (cf.  2  Ki. 
16  :  7  ff.  with  15  :  29).  (6)  The  period  of  civil  strife  follow- 
ing the  death  of  Jeroboam  II  seems  to  be  referred  to  in 
9 :  18-21  (cf.  2  Ki.  15 : 8  ff.) ;  and  (c)  the  mention  of  Syria 
as  an  enemy  of  Israel  (9 :  12)  also  points  to  a  time  before 
735  B.C. 

This  view  of  the  date  of  this  section  is  based  on  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  tenses  of  9 : 8  ff.  as  referring  to  the  past  (cf.  R.  V. 
marg.),  not  to  a  prediction  of  future  judgment.^ 

d.  Chap.  17: 1-11  belongs  also  to  this  time:  (a)  Damas- 
cus ( =  Syria)  and  Ephraim  ( =  Israel)  are  combined  in  the 
prophetic  description  (vs.  3) ;  and  (b)  Damascus  is  standing, 
hence  it  must  be  prior  to  732  b.c.  when  it  was  captured  by 

1  Cf.  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  77  f.  For  the  view  that  the  reference  is  to  the 
future,  cf.  detailed  discussion,  Gray,  Isa.  in  loc. 


94        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

Assyria  (2  Ki.  16  :  9).  As  no  mention  is  made  of  any  act  of 
hostility  against  Judah  by  the  two  powers,  the  early  days 
of  the  coahtion  answers  well  the  situation,  i.e.  c.  735  b.c.^ 

2.  Prophetic  messages  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  invasion  (2  Ki.  16 : 5 
&.),  G.  735  B.C. 

Chaps.  7 : 1-9 : 7.  The  date  of  this  section  is  clearly 
indicated  in  7  :  1  ff .  Parts  of  this  section,  especially  in  chaps. 
8  and  9  :  2-7  are  regarded  by  a  number  of  scholars  as  later 
additions.     Cf.  p.  147,  iii.  d. 

Chap.  1  may  also  possibly  belong  to  this  time ;  vss.  7-9  referring 
to  the  invasion  by  the  allied  powers.^  But  on  the  whole  it  seems 
more  probable  that  it  reflects  the  invasion  of  701  b.c,  by  Sen- 
nacherib. 

3.  Prophetic  messages  during  the  remaining  years  of  the 
reign  of  Ahaz,  c.  735-719  (?)  B.C.     Chaps.  28  : 1-6 ;  23. 

a.  Chap.  28 : 1-6  belongs  clearly  before  722  (721)  b.c, 
the  date  of  the  downfall  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  (2  Ki.  17), 
as  Samaria  is  represented  as  still  standing.  It  may  accord- 
ingly be  placed  c.  725  b.c. 

h.  Chap.  23,  against  Tyre,  is  referred  by  many  scholars 
to  the  siege  of  that  city  by  Shalmaneser  V  from  727-722  b.c. 
as  related  by  Josephus  (Ant.  ix.  14,  §  2),  which  seems  a  reason- 
able occasion  to  which  to  assign  it. 

Vs.  13  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  date  of  the  chapter, 
i.e.  the  reference  to  the  destruction  of  the  Chaldeans.  This  might 
refer  to  the  time  of  Sargon  (710-709  b.c),  or  Sennacherib  (703 
B.C.),  for  at  both  of  those  times  the  Chaldeans  were  in  revolt 
against  Assyria.  The  text,  however,  of  this  verse  is  regarded 
by  many  scholars  as  uncertain.  Some  authorities  read  ''Ca- 
naanites"  instead  of  "Chaldeans,"  by  a  sKght  alteration  of  the 
text,  and  refer  it  to  the  Tyrians  themselves  and  their  impending 
fate,  either  as  above  (727-722  b.c.)  or  later  in  701  b.c. 

McCurdy  considers  the  chap,  as  a  whole  to  belong  c.  685  b.c, 
about  20  years  before  the  capture  of  Tyre  by  the  Assyrian  king 
Asshurbanipal.^ 

1  Kent  includes  vss.  12-14  also  in  this  date.     Cf.  his  Sermons,  etc.,  119. 

2  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  i.  pp.  350  f.,  413  f.  (§§  309  and  Ap.,  n.  9).  See 
also  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  p.  3 ;  Whitehouse,  Isa.  i.  65,  88  ff . 

3  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  358  ff.  (§§  772  f.).  Cf.  the  view  that  chap. 
23  was  from  a  disciple  of  Isa.,  c.  668  b.c.     (Whitehouse,  Isa.  in  ioc.) 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  95 

For  the  view  that  vss.  15-18  are  a  late  addition  to  the  chap, 
cf.  p.  147,  iii.  e.^ 

4.  Prophetic  messages  during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (719  (?) 
ff.),  especially  the  years  705-701  B.C.  {  =  from  the  accession 
of  Sennacherib  of  Assyria  to  the  invasion  of  Judea  (cf.  2  Ki. 
18-19).  Chaps.  14:28-32;  20;  15-16;  19;  21:11-17 
(?);  10:5-12:6;  14:24-27;  17:12-14;  18;  28:7- 
33:24;  22:15-25;  1;  22:1-14. 

a.  Chap.  14:28-32,  according  to  the  heading  (vs.  28), 
belongs  to  the  year  of  the  death  of  king  Ahaz,  719  (?)  B.C. 
The  Biblical  dating  is  here  followed. 

This  section,  however,  has  been  assigned  to  other  occasions,  on 
the  ground  that  the  expression,  ''the  rod  that  smote  thee  is 
broken"  (vs.  29),  refers  to  the  death  of  some  Assyrian  king,  who 
had  oppressed  the  Philistines,  e.g.  the  death  of  Shalmaneser  V 
(722-21  B.C.),  or  more  Ukely  Sargon's  death  (705  B.C.),  who  had 
defeated  the  king  of  Gaza  in  720  b.c.  and  captured  Ashdod  in 
711  B.C.  His  death  might  very  naturally  be  the  occasion  of  the 
rejoicings,  which,  Isaiah  declares  in  these  verses,  are  ill-timed  in 
view  of  a  greater  tyrant  (vs.  29b)  who  is  to  arise,  i.e.  Sennacherib. 

b.  Chap.  20,  according  to  the  heading  (vs.  1),  belongs  to 
the  year  that  Sargon  sent  his  army  against  Ashdod.  From 
Assyrian  records  this  date  is  known  to  be  711  B.C. 

c.  Chaps.  15-16.  The  inference  from  16  :  13  is  that  ''the 
word,"  spoken  ''in  time  past,"  refers  to  the  preceding 
section  (15 :  1-16 :  12),  which  accordingly  belongs  to  an 
earlier  date,  — 16:13  f.  forming  a  supplement  to  it.  In 
reference  to  the  dates  of  these  respective  portions  there  is 
much  uncertainty.  The  majority  of  scholars  regard  the 
main  section  (15 : 1-16 :  12)  as  a  message  from  some  earlier 
prophet,  which  Isaiah  adopted,  and  to  which  he  added  the 
supplementary  words,  16 :  13  f.  The  date  of  16 :  13  f.  is 
conjectural.  A  not-improbable  occasion  is  c.  711  b.c, 
when  it  is  known,  from  Assyrian  records,  that  the  Moabites 
were  in  rebellion  against  the  Assyrians. 

The  conclusion  that  15 : 1-16 :  12  is  non-Isaianic  is  based  espe- 

^  Note  the  view  that  chap.  23  as  a  whole  is  exilic  (Wade,  Isa.  in  loc). 
Cf.  also  Cheyne's  conclusion  that  it  was  written  in  the  spirit  of  Isaiah, 
or  that  it  is  one  of  his  prophecies  re-edited  in  post-exilic  times.  (EBi, 
ii.  2197;  his  Introd.  Isa.  139  ff.,  406;  his  Isa.  (SBOT),  18  f.,  148,  etc.) 


96        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

cially  on  (a)  the  pathetic,  elegiac  strain  of  the  section,  which  does 
not  resemble  Isaiah's  writings  ;  (6)  the  expression  of  purely  human 
sympathy  towards  Moab;  (c)  ''poverty  of  religious  ideas";  and 
(d)  the  vocabulary  and  ''style,"  which  "is  about  as  unUke  Isaiah's 
as  could  be"  (cf.  Num.  21 :  27-30). 

Hitzig's  view  that  it  refers  to  the  conquest  of  Moab  by  Jero- 
boam II, — implied  in  the  extent  of  his  dominion  (2  Ki.  14:25; 
cf.  Am.  6  :  14),  —  has  been  accepted  by  many  since. ^ 

d.  Chap.  19.  This  chapter  contains  two  dissimilar  sec- 
tions, viz.  vss.  1-15  and  vss.  16-25.  It  is  impossible  to 
determine  definitely  the  date  of  the  first  section,  owing  to  the 
vagueness  of  the  historical  allusions.  The  reference  to  the 
''cruel  lord"  (vs.  4)  is  generally  supposed  to  mean  an  As- 
syrian conqueror,  and  that  Isaiah  had  in  mind  an  impending 
invasion  of  Egypt  by  that  power.  If  so,  then  this  section 
might  be  dated :  (a)  c.  720  b.c.  when  Sargon  defeated  the 
Egyptians  at  Raphia;  or  (h)  711  b.c.  when  he  again  re- 
pulsed them  (cf.  the  prophet's  similar  message  on  that 
occasion  in  chap.  20) ;  or  (c)  even  later,  c.  702  e.g.,  just 
before  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  when  the  Jewish  leaders 
were  looking  to  Egypt  for  help.  This  last  date  is  favored 
by  many  scholars  (e.g.  Ewald,  Dillmann,  etc.).  Driver  con- 
siders the  first  occasion  "plausible."  ^  The  other  date  711 
B.C.  seems  to  others  equally  probable.^ 

The  tyrant  alluded  to  (vs.  4)  may  possibly  refer  to  some  Egyp- 
tian ruler,  and  the  date  be  after  fear  from  Assyrian  invasion  had 
for  the  time  passed,  i.e.  after  701  b.c.  From  this  standpoint 
the  import  of  the  prediction  is  that  punishment  is  to  come  to  Egypt 
from  wdthin.^ 

In  reference  to  the  dating  of  the  second  section,  vss.  16-25 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion.  While  the  Isaianic  au- 
thorship of  these  verses  has  its  defenders  (e.g.  W.  R.  Smith), 
the  general  trend  of  critical  opinion  is  in  favor  of  a  much 
later  time ;  cf .  the  favorable  attitude  towards  Egypt  and 
Assyria,  vss.  21  ff.,  which  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the 

1  Cf .  Gray's  view  that  the  main  prophecy  and  the  appendix  are  subse- 
quent to  the  conquest  of  Moab  by  the  Nabateans  in  the  5th  cen.  b.c.  ; 
see  his  Isa.  in  loc. ;   also  Cornill,  Introd.  273  f. 

2  Cf.  LOT,  215. 

3  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  260  fif.  (§§  654  ff.). 
*  Cf.  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  144. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  97 

prophet's  views  of  these  nations  frequently  expressed  (30 :  1 
ff.,  7;  31:  Iff.;  10  :  5  ff.,  etc.). 

Skinner  thinks  if  Isaiah  is  the  author  the  section  belongs  to  the 
later  years  of  his  Hfe,  but  he  considers  the  balance  of  evidence 
in  favor  of  a  post-exilic  date,  at  a  time  before  the  diffusion  of  the 
Greek  language.^ 

e.  Chap.  21 :  11-17.  The  historical  setting  of  the  messages 
contained  in  these  verses,  relating  to  Edom  and  certain  Arab 
tribes,  is  very  uncertain.  In  711  B.C.  Edom,  Moab,  Judah 
and  some  of  the  Philistine  cities  are  known,  from  Assyrian 
inscriptions,  to  have  been  engaged  in  conspiracy  against 
that  power,  and  so  conjecturally  this  section  may  be  assigned 
to  this  date. 

Many  scholars,  however,  consider  these  vss.  exilic  along 
with  vss.  1-10.     See  pp.  177  f. 

/.  Chaps.  10  :  5-12  :  6.  The  date  of  this  section  is  derived 
from  the  references  in  10  :  5  ff.  and  the  content  of  the  passage, 
viz.  an  impending  invasion  of  Judah  by  Assyria.  The  men- 
tion of  Samaria  (vs.  9)  among  the  captured  cities  places  it 
after  722-21  b.c.  By  some  writers  it  is  considered  to  have 
been  uttered  soon  after  that  occasion.  By  others  it  is  dated  c. 
711  B.C.,  at  the  timeof  Sargon's  military  operations  in  the  West 
(cf.  chap.  20).  Since  the  invasion  by  Assyria  is  depicted  as 
imminent,  it  may  with  more  probability  be  placed  in  the 
time  of  (or  shortly  preceding)  Sennacherib's  invasion,  701  b.c. 

There  is  a  growing  conviction  that  different  portions  of  these 
chaps,  are  later  additions,  especially  11 :  10-16  and  chap.  12.  A 
number  would  also  include  11 : 1-9  as  a  later  (exiUc)  insertion.^ 

g.  Chap.  14 :  24-27.  This  fragment,  relating  to  the  de- 
struction of  Assyria  in  Judah,  which  is  unconnected  in  its 
present  position,  is  thought  by  some  writers  to  have  formed 
originally  the  conclusion  of  chap.  10  :  5-15.  Whether  or  not 
this  is  the  logical  connection  of  this  section,  the  time  of  the 

1  Ibid. ;  cf.  Whitehouse  =  different  post-exilic  dates  (except  vss.  19- 
22  =  Isaianic  not  improbably),  vss.  23  ff.  coming  from  the  Greek  period. 
Whitehouse  and  Wade  (?)  also  assign  vss.  1-15  to  post-exilic  times  (cf. 
their  Comms.  on  Isa.  in  loc),  in  this  conclusion  agreeing  with  Cheyne. 
Cf.  his  Introd.  Isa.  99  f.,  110;  EBi,  ii.  2198;  his  Isa.  (SBOT),  97  f., 
188  ff.     CorniU,  Introd.  273  f.,  541. 

2  For  this  point  of  view  cf .  especially  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  and  Int. 
Crit.  Comm.  (Gray)  in  loc.     See  also  notes  pp.  152  f.,  v.  /.  g. 


98        AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

invasion  of  Sennacherib  in  701  b.c.  seems  a  likely  historical 
setting  for  it. 

h.  Chap.  17  :  12-14.  This  is  another  fragment  predicting 
the  destruction  of  the  Assyrians.  While  there  is  nothing  in 
the  verses  to  point  to  their  exact  date,  this  same  occasion  is 
a  very  probable  one. 

Some  take  this  section  as  referring  to  the  destruction  of  the 
Syro-Ephraimitish  league,  and  hence  belonging  to  the  time  of  the 
preceding  part  of  the  chapter  (vss.  1-11),  i.e.  c.  735  b.c.  The 
opinion,  however,  that  the  Assyrians  are  meant  is  the  one  usually 
held. 

i.  Chap.  18.  This  chapter  also  refers  to  the  destruction 
of  the  Assyrians.  It  contains  an  announcement  to  ambassa- 
dors from  Ethiopia  (vss.  1  ff.),  who  presumably  were  sent 
to  Judah  to  plan  for  measures  of  defence  against  their  com- 
mon foe.  This  same  occasion  (c.  702  b.c.)  answers  best  the 
situation  implied  in  the  message. 

This  chapter  has  also  been  assigned  to  c.  711  b.c,  a  warning 
against  Egyptian  ( =  Ethiopian  djruasty)  alliance,  at  the  time  of 
Sargon's  invasion.^ 

j.  Chaps.  28-33.  Of  this  section,  chap.  28  : 1-6  has  already 
been  considered  (cf.  p.  94.  3,  a.).  The  remaining  portions 
devoted  largely  to  Judah's  relation  to  Assyria,  with  denun- 
ciations of  the  policy  of  trusting  in  Egypt  (e.g.  30 :  1  ff. ; 
31  :  1  ff. ;  cf.  28  :  14  ff . ;  29  :  15  ff.),  most  naturally  refer  to  the 
period  705-01  B.C.,  when  negotiations  between  Judah  and 
Egypt  were  being  carried  on. 

Some  scholars  think  that  the  date  of  28 :  1-6  determines  at 
least  the  remainder  of  the  chapter,  and  possibly  the  whole  section 
(28-33).  This,  however,  is  not  probable.  These  chapters  as  a 
whole  seem  naturally  to  reflect  the  same  situation.  The  intrigues 
on  the  part  of  Egypt,  so  far  as  is  known,  were  never  carried  to 
the  extent  indicated  in  these  chapters  before  the  time  of  Sen- 
nacherib (705  B.C.  and  the  following  years).  Note  also  the  fact 
that  the  judgment  of  Jehovah  is  described  as  imminent  (29  : 1  ff . : 
32:10). 

Several  portions  of  this  section  have  been  considered  non- 
Isaianic,  especially  chap.  33.     Note  the  apocalyptic  character  of 

1  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  pp.  261,  418,  Ap.,  n.  4  (§  655,  etc.). 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  99 

the  description  (vss.  3  ff.) ;  and  the  prophet's  identification  of 
himself  with  the  people  (vs.  2),  which  has  no  parallel  in  the  clearly 
authentic  writings  of  Isaiah.  Accordingly  it  has  been  assigned 
to  the  Persian,  or  even  Maccabean  times  (Duhm).  Others 
(Cen.  B.)  date  it  from  the  close  of  the  Kingdom  (except  vss.  14-16), 
based  perhaps  on  an  oracle  of  the  prophet.  Cf.  the  view  that  the 
bulk  of  the  chap,  is  from  Isa.  plus  later  additions,  espec.  vss.  20- 
24  (Wade,  Isa.  in  loc.).i 

k.  Chap.  22  :  15-25.  This  is  a  prediction  of  the  downfall 
of  Shebna,  who  is  to  be  succeeded  by  Eliakim.  This  is 
commonly  assigned  to  this  same  period,  but  it  belongs  in  it 
clearly  before  701  B.C.,  as  in  that  year  this  prediction  had 
been  fulfilled  (cf.  2  Ki.  18 :  18 ;  19 : 2,  where  Eliakim  is 
represented  as  holding  the  office,  which  was  occupied  at 
the  time  of  this  prophetic  message  by  Shebna). 

/.  Chap.  1.  This  chapter,  which  seems  clearly  to  have 
been  written  during  some  invasion  of  the  land  [cf.  vs.  7, 
where  the  Hebrew  verbal  form  is  a  participle,  i.e.  literally, 
^'your  land  strangers  {are)  eating^'],  has  also  been  referred 
to  earlier  dates.  While  the  definite  occasion  is  uncertain, 
the  description  is  very  appropriate  to  the  invasion  by 
Sennacherib,  and  to  this  time  there  is  a  growing  tendency 
among  scholars  to  assign  it.  If  this  is  its  date,  then  its 
present  position  at  the  beginning  of  Isaiah's  prophecies  is 
due  to  the  representative  character  of  its  teaching. 

Skinner  favors  the  time  of  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  invasion  of 
Judah  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  for  this  chap.  His  reasons  may  be 
summarized  as  follows :  {a)  the  fresh  and  powerful  setting- 
forth  of  prophetic  ideas  here  favors  the  earlier  rather  than  the  later 
period  of  Isaiah's  ministry.  (6)  The  resemblance  of  the  teach- 
ing to  that  in  chaps.  2-5,  which  are  early  ;  and  (c)  if  this  prophecy 
had  its  origin  in  the  time  of  Sennacherib's  invasion,  it  is  hkely 
more  allusions  would  have  been  made  to  that  event.  Cf.  also 
{d)  the  reference  to  idolatry  (vss.  29  ff.),  which  points  to  the  reign 
of  Ahaz  rather  than  to  that  of  Hezekiah.  Wade  assigns  a  part 
of  the  chap.  =  vss.  18-28  (29-31)  to  the  time  of  Ahaz.^ 

m.  Chap.  22 : 1-14.  The  date  of  this  section  in  which 
Isaiah  rebukes  the  untimely  rejoicing  of  the  people  is  un- 

1  See  further  notes  on  chaps.  28-33,  p.  153,  v.  i-k. 

2  Cf .  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  p.  3 ;  Whitehouse,  Isa.  i.  pp.  65,  88  f . ;  Wade,  Isa. 
1  fif.     See  also  this  vol.  p.  153,  v.  I. 


100     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

certain.  By  many  scholars  it  is  referred  to  some  occasion, 
the  details  of  which  are  now  unknown,  in  connection  with 
Sennacherib's  invasion,  701  B.C. 

Possibly  the  withdrawal  of  the  Assyrian  army  from  Jerusalem, 
after  Hezekiah's  submission  in  701  B.C.  (2  Ki.  18 :  14-16),  was  the 
occasion  of  the  situation  caUing  forth  this  prophecy  =  a  view 
adopted  by  most  scholars.     Cf.  also  p.  151,  n.  ^ 

The  following  sections  of  Isaiah  1-39  are  now  by  agreement  of 
practically  all  scholars  regarded  as  later  productions,  viz. 

a.  Chaps.  13  :  1-14  :  23  and  21 :  1-10  (?)  =  period  of  the  Exile; 
cf.  pp.  177  ff. ;  195,  ii.  1.  a.-b. 

b.  Chaps.  34-35  and  24-27  =  the  Persian  period ;  cf.  pp.  215  ff., 
220  ff.,  etc. 

c.  The  following  sections  are  also  considered  by  many  scholars 
later  additions,  4:2-6;  11:10-12:6;  19:16-25;  21:11-17; 
23  :  15-18 ;  29  :  16-24  (or  18-24) ;  30  :  18-33  (or  18-26)  and  chap. 
33.  To  this  list  many  would  add  2:2-4  ( =  Mic.  4 :  1-3) ; 
9:2-7;  11:1-9  and  various  minor  insertions  of  one  or  more 
verses.  See  notes  on  Bibhcal  material  chronologically  arranged, 
pp.  144-153.  Other  scholars,  especially  Cheyne,  hold  that  a 
number  of  other  portions  of  the  prophecy  were  added  by  later 
hands ;  cf .  his  Introd.  Isa. ;  his  Comm.  on  Isa.  (SBOT) ;  see 
also  Int.  Crit.  Comm.  (Gray) ;  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.  Cf.  also 
summary  in  LOT,  229  f.     See  the  Hst,  pp.  306  f.,  this  vol.^^ 

D.  Micah,  Micah,  a  native  of  Judah  (Moresheth,  1:1), 
prophesied,  according  to  the  heading  of  his  prophecy,  in  the 

1  For  Isa.  36-39  =  historical  material,  cf.  p.  85,  1.  C. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Isaiah's 
prophecies,  found  in  chaps.  1-39,  LOT,  204  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  171  ff. 
Kautzsch,  LOT,  53  ff .,  185  ff .  McFadyen,  Introd.  107  ff .  Cornill,  Introd. 
262  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  178  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  145  ff.  Cheyne,  Introd. 
Isa.  HDB,  ii.  485  ff.  (G.  A.  Smith);  cf.  iv.  1126  (Davidson);  extra 
vol.  693a,  7086  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  2189  ff . ;  cf.  2180  ff.  (Cheyne);  iii. 
3890  f.  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Isa.,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Gray) ; 
West.  C.  (Wade) ;  Camb.  B.  vol.  1  (Skinner) ;  Expos.  B.  vol.  1  (G.  A. 
Smith) ;  Cen.  B.  vol.  1  (Whitehouse) ;  SBOT  (Cheyne).  Kent,  Sermons, 
etc.,  17  f .,  107  ff.,  148  ff.,  473  ff.,  479  f .,  486  ff.  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.^ 
xxvii  ff.,  191  ff .,  214  ff.,  235  ff.,  279  ff.,  317  ff.,  414  ff.,  etc.  Cheyne,  Foun- 
ders, etc.,  294  ff .  Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times.  Davidson,  O.  T.  Prophc.  242 
ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  i.  pp.  350  f.,  359  ff.,  367  ff.,  393  f.  (  =  §§  309,  317  ff., 
325  ff.,  355) ;  ii.  pp.  252  ff.,  260  ff.,  296  ff.,  302  ff.  ( =  §§  641  ff.,  654  ff., 
701  ff.,  711  ff.) ;  iii.  pp.  Ill  ff.  (§§  995  ff.).  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  339  ff., 
360  ff.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  114  f.,  128  ff.,  135  ff.,  etc.  H.  P.  Smith, 
O.  T.  Hist.  233  ff.,  241,  246  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  21  ff.  Budde,  Relig. 
Isr.,  144  ff.  Kh-kpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  143  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr. 
56  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  pp.  79  ff.,  133  ff.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc., 
20  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  150,  158  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  114. 
Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  139  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  101 

reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah  (1:1),  i.e.  c.  740- 
c.  690  B.C.  That  Micah's  ministry  falls  in  this  period  is 
confirmed  by  an  incidental  reference  in  Jeremiah  that  Micah 
was  a  prophet  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  (Jer.  26 :  17  ff.). 
Micah  is  frequently  described  by  Old  Testament  scholars  as 
*'  a  younger  contemporary  of  Isaiah." 

In  considering  more  particularly  the  date  of  the  prophecy 
the  following  sections  may  be  taken  together :  (a)  chaps. 
1-3  ;   (6)  4-5  ;  and  (c)  6-7. 

a.  Chaps.  1-3.  It  is  the  common  opinion  of  scholars  that 
these  chapters  belong  to  a  different  occasion  from  the  rest  of 
the  book.  Of  these  chapters,  the  first,  on  account  of  the 
prediction  of  the  destruction  of  Samaria  (vss.  6  f.),  —  a  judg- 
ment which  also  threatens  Jerusalem  (vss.  9  ff.),  —  is  gener- 
ally placed  shortly  before  722  (721)  B.C.,  i.e.  the  date  of  the 
destruction  of  Samaria  by  Assyria. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  time  indicated  in  1 :  6  f . 
may  be  otherTvdse  understood,  as  the  tense  in  the  Hebrew  may  refer 
to  what  is  impending,  what  is  actually  transpiring  or  what  has 
just  happened.  Hence  it  is  possible  that  the  chapter  belongs  soon 
after  722  (721)  b.c. 

Since  it  is  known  from  the  Assyrian  records  that  Samaria  con- 
tinued as  a  city  after  721  B.C.,  being  repopulated  with  foreign 
colonists,  and  that  it  was  involved  in  conspiracy  against  Assyria 
with  other  cities  in  720  b.c,  it  is  the  view  of  some  scholars  that 
Mic.  1  was  occasioned  by  this  city's  attitude  of  rebellion,  which 
probably  existed  either  713-11  or  704-701  b.c.  Cf.  below  on 
chaps.  2-3.1 

Attention  may  also  be  called  to  the  fact  that  nothing  with  cer- 
tainty can  be  assigned  in  Micah's  prophecies  to  the  reign  of  Jotham, 
e.  740-735  b.c. 

Chapters  2-3  from  (a),  the  evident  outward  prosperity  of 
Judah  (2 :  1  ff. ;  3 :  1  ff.),  and  (5),  the  absence  of  apprehen- 
sion on  the  nation's  part  of  danger  of  invasion,  may  with 
probabihty  be  placed  soon  after  719  B.C.,  when  Sargon  with- 
drew his  forces  from  operations  in  the  West. 

From  the  prediction  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (3 :  12), 
which  according  to  Jeremiah  (26 :  18)  was  uttered  in  the  reign  of 

1  Cf.  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Mic,  etc.,  20  f. ;  Moore,  LOT,  199.     Cf.  contra, 

Gray,  Introd.  218. 


102      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

Hezekiah,  a  possible  inference  is  that  chaps.  2-3  +  1 :  9  ff.  belong 
to  a  time  subsequent  to  the  accession  of  Sennacherib  of  Assyria 
in  705  B.C.  From  this  chronological  setting  the  prediction  may 
be  accounted  for  as  occasioned  by  the  changed  attitude  of  Heze- 
kiah {i.e.  his  spirit  of  rebellion)  toward  Assyria  after  that  date.^ 

b.  Chaps.  4-5.  These  chapters,  the  connection  of  thought 
of  which  is  considerably  broken,  not  unlikely  represent 
fragments  of  different  prophetic  addresses.  In  view  of  the 
mention  of  the  Assyrians  as  invaders  (5  :  5),  a  date  in  connec- 
tion with  Sennacherib's  invasion  701  B.C.  is  a  reasonable  one 
to  infer. 

There  is,  however,  a  growing  conviction  among  scholars  that 
these  chapters  as  a  whole,  or  in  large  part,  belong  to  a  much  later 
age.     Cf.  under  the  Biblical  material  outlined  pp.  153  f.,  v.  m. 

c.  Chaps.  6-7.  Of  this  section  chaps.  6 :  1-7  :  6  have  been 
assigned  by  many  scholars,  since  the  time  of  Ewald,  to  the 
period  of  reaction  to  heathenism  and  of  persecution  of  the 
adherents  of  Jehovah,  in  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  c.  690  ff .  ( ?) 
B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  21 :  1  ff.).  This  view  is  based  on  :  (a)  reference 
to  child  sacrifice  (6:7;  cf .  2  Ki.  21 :  6) ;  (h)  the  tone  of 
despondency  (7:1  ff.)  in  contrast  to  the  more  hopeful 
strain  in  the  preceding  sections  (cf .  4  :  6  ff . ;  5 :  2  ff .  Note 
also  the  tenderness  of  6  :  1  ff .  as  compared  with  the  denuncia- 
tions of  chaps.  1  ff.) ;  (c)  the  social  evils  depicted,  especially 
the  persecution  of  the  righteous  (7:2;  cf.  2  Ki.  21 :  16) ; 
and  (d)  the  mention  of  ''the  statutes  of  Omri''  and  "the 
works  of  the  house  of  Ahab"  (6 :  16),  in  whose  counsel  the 
people  "walk,"  i.e.  Baal  worship  (cf.  1  Ki.  16:31  ff.),  and 
possibly  the  persecution  of  the  adherents  of  Jehovah 
(cf.  IKi.  18:13). 

It  is  to  be  noted,  in  connection  with  the  first  of  the  reasons  given 
above,  that  some  scholars  think  that  Mic.  6 :  7  impHes  the  possi- 
bility  of  child  sacrifice,  not  its  actual  existence  as  a  practice.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  this  form  of  worship,  though  specially  prevalent 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  is  also  referred  to  as  being  carried  on  in 
the  time  of  Ahaz  (cf.  2  Ki.  16:3).2 

The  assigning  of  Mic.  6 : 1-7 :  6  to  the  reign  of  Manasseh  does 

1  Cf.  HDB,  iii.  360a  (Nowack) ;  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Mic,  etc.,  19  ff . ; 
Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  18,  139  ff.,  where  chaps.  1-3  are  dated  before  701  b.c. 

2  Cf.  G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of  XII,  i.  p.  370. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM         103 

not  necessarily  preclude  the  possibility  of  Micah  being  the  author, 
but  o\\dng  to  the  difference  of  style  in  this  section  (it  is  dra- 
matic in  form,  entirely  unlike  chaps.  1-5,  and  the  tone  is  also 
pathetic,  resembling  the  elegiac  strain  found  so  frequently  in 
Jeremiah),  the  view  that  it  belongs  to  a  different  prophet  is 
held  by  many  scholars.  G.  A.  Smith,  however,  thinks  there  is 
nothing  inconsistent  with  Micah  or  the  eighth  century  b.c.  in 
this  portion  of  the  prophecy,  and  holds  that  it  may  be  regarded 
"as  the  more  detailed  picture  of  the  evils  he  summarily  de- 
nounced" in  the  earher  chapters.  Even  in  7:1-6,  though  the 
data  favor  the  era  of  Manasseh,  he  concludes  that  the  date  cannot 
be  fixed.^ 

The  remainder  of  chap.  7  (vss.  7-20)  is  usually  considered 
a  later  addition  to  the  prophecy. ^ 

Cf.  the  view  of  J.  M.  P.  Smith  that  chaps.  6  f.  ''seem  to  be  a 
collection  of  miscellaneous  fragments,  coming  from  widely  scat- 
tered periods  and  from  at  least  four  different  authors,"  of  which 
"the  possibihty  of  Micah's  authorship  remains  open  for  6:9-16 
and  7:1-6"  only.^  ^ 

E.  Zephaniah.  The  ministry  of  Zephaniah,  who  was  a 
prophet  of  Judah,  belongs  according  to  the  heading  of  his 
prophecy  (1 : 1)  to  the  reign  of  Josiah,  639-608  b.c.  (cf.  2  Ki. 
22 :  1-23 :  30) .  The  correctness  of  this  date,  at  least  for 
chapter  1,  is  usually  accepted.  The  priority  of  the  prophecy 
to  the  downfall  of  Nineveh,  c.  607  or  606  b.c,  is  indicated 
by  the  prediction  of  the  destruction  of  that  city  (2 :  13). 

1  Ibid.,  pp.  370, 372, 429.  Cf .  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  145  ff.  Cf .  Cheyne's 
view  that  this  section  is  post-exiHc,  see  EBi,  iii.  3073. 

2  See  notes  in  outline  of  Biblical  material,  pp.  154  f.,  iii.  b. 

3  Cf.  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Mic,  etc.,  15  f. 

*  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Micah, 
LOT,  325  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  247  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  57  f.,  cf.  187, 
189.  McFadyen,  Introd.  200  &.  Cornill,  Introd.  339  ff.  Gray,  Introd. 
217  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  198  ff.  HDB,  iii.  359  f.  (Nowaek).  EBi,  iii. 
3068  ff.  (W.  R.  Smith  and  Cheyne) ;  3892  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms. 
on  Micah,  espec.  in  Int.  Crit.  (J.  M.  P.  Smith) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of 
XII  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Camb.  B.  (Cheyne) ;  Cen.  B.  (Horton).  Bennett, 
Primer,  etc.,  28  ff.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  18,  139  ff.,  478,  481  ff.  Mc- 
Curdy,  HPM,  i.  pp.  394  f.  (§  356) ;  ii.  pp.  212  f.,  254  f.,  383  f.,  386,  424  f. 
( =  §§  595,  644  ff.,  798,  800  and  note  8  in  Ap.).  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs. 
Isr.2  ( =  Cheyne)  xxiii  ff.,  287  ff.,  365  f.,  372,  429  ff.,  442  ( =  426  ff.,  439, 
old  ed.).  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  205  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii. 
350  f.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  116,  136  f.,  139  f.,  etc.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T. 
Hist.  252  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  29,  360,  428.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs. 
124  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  69  f.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  Ill  ff.  San- 
ders, Hist.  Hebrs.  162  ff.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  163  ff. 


104      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

The  period  in  Josiah's  reign  to  which  the  prophecy,  espe- 
cially chapter  1,  belongs  is  commonly  allowed  to  be  before 
621  B.C.  i.e.  the  year  in  which  the  law  book  was  discovered, 
followed  by  the  great  reformation  (cf.  2  Ki.  22 :  3  ff.).  The 
reasons  for  this  view  are  :  (a)  the  idolatrous  practices  alluded 
to  in  1 : 4  ff.  favor  a  date  before  Josiah's  reforms  (cf .  2  Ki. 
23:4  ff.) ;  (b)  the  social  conditions  described  (1:8  ff.; 
cf.  3 :  1  ff.)  harmonize  with  this  time ;  and  (c)  the  religious 
indifference  and  scepticism  referred  to  (1 :  12  ff.)  might  well 
reflect  the  disappointment  of  some  of  the  zealous  Jehovah 
adherents,  who  anticipated  greater  results  from  the  over- 
throw of  Amon  (2  Ki.  21 :  23  f.)  and  the  early  reforms  of 
Josiah  (?)  (cf.  2Chr.  34:3ff.). 

In  harmony  with  this  time  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  is  the 
view,  held  by  many  scholars,  that  the  prediction  of  impending 
judgment  upon  the  nation  (chap.  1)  was  occasioned  by  the 
great  Scythian  invasion,  which  swept  over  Western  Asia  as 
far  as  Egypt,  c.  630-625  b.c.^ 

Chaps.  2-3,  in  the  main,  apparently  reflect  the  same  period 
of  coming  vengeance  (cf.  2  :  4  ff . ;   3  :  1  ff.). 

It  may  be  noted  that  Kautzsch  assigns  2 :  1-3  :  13  to  Josiah's 
reign  after  the  reformation  of  621  b.c.^ 

The  prophecy  as  a  whole  may  therefore  be  assigned  with 
a  reasonable  degree  of  certainty  to  c.  625  b.c. 

The  authenticity  of  the  following  sections  in  this  prophecy  are 
questioned  by  scholars,  2  :  8-11 ;  3  :  8(or  9)-10, 14-20.  Cf.  further, 
notes  p.  157,  v.  b.-d.^ 

1  For  other  dates  to  which  this  chap,  has  been  assigned,  cf.  p.  157,  v.  a. 

2  Cf.  his  LOT,  61,  190. 

3  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Zephaniah, 
LOT,  340  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  253  f.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  61,  189  f.  Mc- 
Fadyen,  Introd.  216  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  355  &.  Gray,  Introd.  225  f. 
Moore,  LOT,  204  ff.  HDB,  iv.  974  ff.  (Selbie) ;  cf.  extra  vol.  7086, 
711a  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  iii.  3893  f.  (Cheyne) ;  iv.  5402  ff.  (W.  R.  Smith 
and  Driver).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Zeph.,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (J.  M.  P. 
Smith) ;  Camb.  B.  (Davidson) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  vol.  ii.  (G.  A. 
Smith) ;  Cen.  B.  (Driver).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  31  f.  Kent,  Sermons, 
etc.,  20,  165  ff.,  484  f.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  pp.  397,  410  f.  ( §§  814,  830) ; 
cf.  iii.  p.  217  (§  1138).  Ku-kpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  258  £f.  Kittel,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  ii.  380  f.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  167,  173  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T. 
Hist.  276.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  30,  cf.  441  fif.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs. 
153  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  187  ff.  CorniU,  Prophs.  Isr.  76  f. 
Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times,  33.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  173  ff.  Fowler, 
Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  190  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  105 

F.  Jeremiah.  Jeremiah's  prophetic  career  began  in  the 
thirteenth  year  of  Josiah's  reign  (cf.  1:2),  626  B.C.  It 
continued  throughout  the  remaining  years  of  the  existence 
of  Judah  as  a  kingdom  (1:3),  and  some  sections  of  the  book 
{e.g.  chaps.  40-44)  record  the  experiences  and  messages  of 
the  prophet  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chal- 
deans in  586  B.C. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  book  of  Jeremiah  there  are,  besides 
the  record  of  the  prophetic  messages,  sections  of  narrative  and 
historical  material  of  considerable  extent  {e.g.  chaps.  26-29; 
36-45,  largely),  which  may  well  have  been  the  work  of  Baruch 
(cf.  Jer.  36  :  4  ff. ;  45  :  1,  etc.).     See  p.  193,  n.  K 

The  following  steps  in  the  compilation  of  the  present  book  of 
Jeremiah  can  be  clearly  traced  from  evidence  furnished  by  the 
prophecy  itself :  (a)  the  summary  of.  prophecies  delivered  during 
twenty-three  years,  written  by  Baruch  (36 :  1  f.),  and  rewritten 
and  enlarged  the  following  year  (36  :  28,  32,  cf.  vs.  9),  604-603  B.C. 
(6)  The  collection  indicated  in  1 :  3  (the  eleventh  year  of  Zede- 
kiah's  reign,  586  b.c),  which  must  have  contained,  in  addition 
to  the  former  group,  Jeremiah's  utterances  between  603  and 
586  B.C.  And  (c)  the  section  subsequent  to  586  b.c.  (cf.  chaps. 
40-44)  and  probably  other  chapters  and  insertions  of  various 
dates.  ^ 

The  following  may  be  adopted  as  convenient  periods  for 
grouping  the  prophet's  messages. 

1.  Summary  of  prophetic  messages  uttered  originally  before 
the  discovery  of  the  Law  Book  (cf.  2  Ki.  22:3  ff.),  626-621 
B.C.     Chaps.  1 ;  2:1-4:2;  4  :  3-6  :  30. 

a.  Chap.  1  describes  the  prophet's  call,  etc.,  in  626  b.c 
(cf.  vs.  2). 

h.  Chaps.  2  :  1-4  :  2  are  usually  assigned  to  the  early  part 
of  the  prophet's  ministry :  (a)  3 : 6  places  the  section  in 
the  reign  of  Josiah ;  and  (b)  the  references  to  idolatry  {e.g, 
2  :  27  f . ;  3:9)  point  to  a  time  before  the  great  reformation 
(2  Ki.  23 :  1  ff.),  621  b.c 

c.  Chaps.  4  :  3-6  :  30  may  well  belong  to  the  same  time,  as 
similar  conditions  are  reflected  (cf.  4:18;  5:1  ff.,  19  ff., 
etc.,  with  2 :  8  ff.,  17  ff.,  26  ff.,  etc.).  As  the  coming  of  an 
invader  from  the  North  is  a  prominent  subject  (cf.  4:6  ff., 
13  f. ;  5  :  6,  15  ff.,  etc.)  as  compared  with  2  : 1-4  :  2,  it  seems 

1  For  further  details  and  variant  \'iews,  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.,  etc. 


106      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

most  likely  that  it  belongs  a  little  later.  The  foe  from  the 
North  referred  to  (4 :  6,  etc.)  is  considered  by  many  scholars 
to  mean  the  Scythians,  c.  630-625  B.C.  Some  of  the  descrip- 
tions are  especially  appropriate  to  this  marauding  horde 
{e.g.  5:17;  6:3,22). 

Some  scholars  think  that  this  section,  while  originally  occa- 
sioned by  the  threatened  Scythian  invasion,  was  afterwards 
adapted  by  Jeremiah,  when  rewritten  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoi- 
akim  (36 :  32,  cf.  vss.  1,  9),  to  the  new  danger  arising  from  the 
Chaldeans.  Some  expressions  (e.g.  ''lion"  and  ''destroyer  of 
nations,"  4 : 7)  are  especially  apphcable  to  the  latter  (cf.  49 :  19; 
50:44).! 

2.  Prophetic  messages  connected  with  the  discovery  of  the  Law 
Book  (2  Ki.  22  :  3  ff.),  621  B.C.  Chaps.  11 : 1-8 ;  17  :  19- 
27(?). 

a.  Chap.  11 : 1-8.  The  close  resemblance  of  phraseology 
in  this  section  to  Deuteronomy,  the  law  book  discovered 
on  this  occasion,  has  led  many  scholars  to  refer  it  to  a  preach- 
ing mission  undertaken  by  Jeremiah  in  the  interests  of  this 
legal  code.2 

Compare  the  following  parallels  of  phraseology  and  thought 
with  Deuteronomy;  11:3  with  Deut.  28:15-19;  11:4  with 
Deut.  4  :  20,  26  :  17  f .,  etc. ;  11:5  with  Deut.  6:3;  11:8  with 
Deut.  28 :  15. 

h.  Chap.  17: 19-27  (?).  This  section  on  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbath  may  belong  to  this  period.  The  outlook  for 
the  nation  is  represented  as  hopeful,  if  the  Sabbath  is  ob- 
served (cf.  vss.  24  ff.).  In  later  messages  the  prophet 
despairs  of  the  nation  (e.g.  chaps.  14  ff.).  This  section, 
however,  is  considered  by  many  scholars  a  later  addition  to 
the  prophecy.     See  further  p.  159,  v.  m. 

3.  Prophetic  messages  and  experiences  at  the  beginning  of 
Jehoiakim's  reign  (2  Ki.  23:34  ff.),  608  ff.  b.c.  Chaps. 
26;  7-10;  21:11-22:9;  22:10-12;  22:13-19;  11:9- 
12:6;  18-20.  . 

a.  Chap.  26  is  dated  from  the  beginning  of  Jehoiakim's 

1  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  pp.  395  f.  (§  813);  HDB,  ii.  5706  (David- 
son) ;   Peake,  Jer.  i.  117 ;   Moore,  LOT,  167  f. 

2  For  the  reasons  for  regarding  Deut.  as  the  book  of  the  law  discovered 
in  621  B.C.  see  pp.  123  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED    KINGDOM  107 

reign  (vs.  1).  The  correctness  of  this  heading  is  confirmed 
by  the  reference  to  the  extradition  of  Uriah  from  Egypt 
(vss.  20  ff.)j  which  could  have  taken  place  only  when  Judah 
was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Egypt,  i.e,  the  beginning  of 
Jehoiakim's  reign  (cf.  2  Ki.  23 :  31  ff.)- 

h.  Chaps  7-10  (except  10 :  1-16,  which  is  usually  con- 
sidered a  late  insertion;  see  pp.  180  f.)  belong  also  to  this  time. 
As  the  same  theme  of  chap.  26,  viz.  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  is  also  dwelt  upon  in  chaps.  7 :  1-8 :  3,  the  same 
occasion  may  naturally  be  inferred.  The  reniainder  of  the 
section,  chaps.  8  :  4  ff.,  contains  similar  denunciations  of  evil 
and  prediction  of  calamity  (cf.  8  :  4  ff.,  12  ff.,  16  ff. ;  9:1  ff., 
7  ff.,  etc.,  with  7 : 8  ff.,  16  ff.,  29  ff.),  and  thus  may  well  be 
included  with  the  preceding.  The  description  of  danger, 
as  not  imminent,  also  favors  this  date,  viz.  after  Judah's 
submission  to  Egypt  and  before  the  battle  of  Carchemish, 
605  (604)  B.C.,  when  by  the  defeat  of  Eg^T^t  Babylonia 
threatened  the  West. 

c.  Chaps.  21  :  11-22  :  9.  This  section  may  be  considered 
together,  as  21 :  11-14  connects  itself  naturally  with  22  :  1-9, 
rather  than  with  the  preceding  (21  :  1-10),  which  is  addressed 
to  Zedekiah.  From  21 :  12  and  22 :  3  f.,  in  which  the  fate 
of  Judah  is  not  regarded  as  hopeless,  the  early  part  of  Jehoia- 
kim's reign  seems  a  fitting  occasion  to  which  to  assign  this 
section. 

d.  Chap.  22  :  10-12.  This  brief  prophecy  relating  to  Jeho- 
ahaz  ( =  Shallum)  and  Josiah  harmonizes  also  with  this  time. 

e.  Chap.  22 :  13-19.  This  denunciation  of  Jehoiakim's 
oppression  may  also  belong  to  this  date. 

/.  Chaps.  11:9-12:6.  From  the  reference  to  the  plot 
against  Jeremiah's  life  on  the  part  of  the  priesthood  (cf. 
11  :  9  ff.,  18  ff.),  it  has  been  inferred,  with  good  reason  by  the 
majority  of  scholars,  that  this  was  due  to  the  prophet's 
words  against  the  Temple  (cf.  7 :  1  ff. ;  26:1  ff.).  Being 
thwarted  in  their  open  attack  upon  him  (26  :  24,  cf.  vss.  8  ff.) 
they  next  resorted  to  treachery.  Hence  this  section  can  be 
assigned  with  much  certainty  to  a  time  shortly  after  chaps. 
7-10  (cf.  above,  h)} 

1  Some  scholars  assign  11:  18-12:6  to  the  same  date  as  11 :  1-8  = 
621  B.C. ;  the  hostility  to  Jeremiah  being  explained  as  due  to  his  advocacy 
of  the  Deut.  reforms.     Cf.  Peake,  Jer.  i.  59  f.,  182  ff.,  cf.  11  ff. 


108     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

g.  Chaps.  18-20.  These  chapters  also  are  assigned  usually 
to  this  time  for  the  following  reasons :  (a)  the  element  of 
hope  of  national  repentance  (18:  11  ff.)  indicates  the  early 
rather  than  the  latter  part  of  Jehoiakim's  reign.  (6)  The 
outrage  perpetrated  upon  Jeremiah  (cf .  chap.  20)  would  have 
been  impossible  in  Josiah's  reign ;  nor  could  it  have  been  so 
late  as  the  time  of  Zedekiah,  for  the  chief  officer  then  was  a 
different  person  (cf.  29  :  25  f.  with  20  :  1  f.).  And  (c)  after 
the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign  Jeremiah  was  in  hiding 
till  just  at  its  close  (36:26  f.).  Hence  somewhere  in  the 
early  part  of  this  reign  may  be  taken  as  the  correct  date. 

A  further  reason  for  this  dating  of  this  section  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Davidson,  viz.  the  inability  of  Jeremiah  to  go  to  the 
Temple,  referred  to  in  36 :  5,  may  possibly  have  been  due  to 
Pashhur's  action  described  in  chap.  20.  Chap.  36  belongs  to  the 
fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign  (cf.  vs.  1).  This  points  to  a  date 
just  previous  to  that  year  for  chap.  20.^ 

On  vss.  in  chaps.  19  f.,  which  according  to  some  scholars  are 
later  insertions,  cf.  p.  161,  iii.  e. 

4.  Prophetic  messages  from  the  fourth  year  of  JehoiakMs 
reign  to  its  end,  604-597  B.C.  =  Chaps.  25 ;  46-49 ;  36 : 
1-8;  45;  36:9-32;  14:1-17:18;   12:7-17;  35. 

a.  Chap.  25  belongs  to  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim's 
reign,  c.  604  b.c,  the  year  in  which  the  Egyptians  were 
defeated  by  the  Chaldeans  at  Carchemish  (vs.  1,  cf.  46 :  2)  .2 

h.  Chaps.  46-49.  As  almost  all  the  nations  mentioned 
in  these  chapters  are  also  named  in  chap.  25 :  19-26,  this 
section  may  with  much  probability  be  assigned  to  the  same 
date,  having  its  origin  in  the  impression  produced  by  this 
victory  of  the  Chaldeans  (cf.  46  :  2 ;  47  : 1). 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  chap.  49 :  34  ff.  is  dated  from  the  begin- 
ning of  Zedekiah's  reign  (vs.  34).  The  year  may  be  correctly 
given,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  vs.  34  is  wanting  in  the 
LXX. 

For  the  possibility  of  much  in  Jer.  46-49  belonging  to  a  later 
period  see  p.  162,  iii.  i. 

c.  Chap.  36  : 1-8  dates  from  the  same  year  (cf.  vs.  1). 

d.  Chap.  45  also  belongs  to  this  year  (cf.  vs.  1). 

*     1  Cf .  HDB,  ii.  572a.         2  Cf .  on  insertions  in  chap.  25,  p.  162,  iii.  h. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  109 

e.  Chap.  36 :  9-32  belongs  to  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiakim, 
603  B.C.  (cf.  vs.  9). 

f.  Chaps.  14 :  1-17 :  18  have  been  assigned  to  the  latter 
part  of  Jehoiakim's  reign  for  the  following  reasons  :  (a)  the 
intensity  of  feehng  manifested  by  the  prophet  (cf.  15  :  10  ff., 

15  ff.) ;  (6)  the  earnestness  of  his  intercession  on  behalf  of 
the  nation  (cf.  14 :  7  ff.,  19  ff .)  ;  and  (c)  the  representation 
of  the  fate  of  the  nation  as  hopeless  (cf.  14  :  11  ff. ;   15  :  1  ff. ; 

16  :  1  ff.).     All  these  facts  favor  the  closing  years  of  this  reign. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Davidson,  however,  that  there  is  little  in 
chaps.  14  ff.  to  determine  the  time  in  Jehoiakim's  reign.^ 

g.  Chap.  12 :  7-17.  From  the  reference  to  the  land  having 
suffered  from  neighboring  peoples  (vss.  14  f.),  the  occasion  of 
this  prophecy  can  be  assigned  with  considerable  certainty 
to  the  raids  made  upon  Judah  by  the  Syrians,  Moabites,  etc., 
who  were  instigated  by  the  Chaldeans  (cf.  2  Ej.  24:2  f.), 
about  the  ninth  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  about  600  B.C. 

h.  Chap.  35.  It  seems  also  quite  certain  that  this  chapter 
belongs  to  the  same  occasion.  The  Rechabites,  a  nomadic 
tribe,  with  whom  the  prophet  had  the  interview,  had  taken 
refuge  in  Jerusalem  from  an  invasion  of  Chaldean  and 
Syrian  troops  (cf.  vs.  11).  This  harmonizes  with  the  condi- 
tion of  affairs  in  Judah,  c.  600  b.c.  (cf.  c.  598  b.c.  =  Peake's 
dating). 

5.  Prophetic  messages  in  the  brief  reign  of  Jehoiachin  (cf .  2 
Ki.  24  :  8  ff.),  597  b.c.  =  Chaps.  13  ;  22  :  20-30. 

a.  Chap.  13.  This  chapter  is  usually  referred  to  this  year 
on  account  of  the  reference  to  the  ''queen-mother"  (vs.  18, 
cf.  2  Ki.  24 :  8).  The  fact  that  her  name  is  given  in  this 
passage  in  the  book  of  Kings  (24:8),  and  that  she  is  also 
referred  to  in  Jer.  22  :  26  ;  29  :  2  (cf.  2  Ki.  24  :  12,  15)  imply 
that  she  was  one  who  had  unusual  influence  at  this  time. 

Aside  from  the  mention  of  the  "  queen-mother  "  in  this  chapter, 
Davidson  thinks  it  contains  nothing  else  to  suggest  this  date.^ 

6.  Chap.  22 :  20-30.  This  prediction  of  the  exile  of  Coniah 
(=  Jehoiachin),  cf.  vss.  24  f.,  dates  from  this  year. 

1  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  573o. 

2  Ibid.     See  further  in  this  vol.  p.  167,  iii.  e. 


110      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

The  whole  section  21:11-22:30  (together  with  possibly  23: 
1-8)  may  have  been  compiled  at  this  date,  597  b.c,  though  the 
portions  21 :  11  ff.  must  have  been  composed  or  uttered  during 
the  respective  reigns  of  the  kings  mentioned.  See  above,  under 
3.  c,  d,  e,  p.  107. 

6.  Prophetic  messages  and  experiences  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah,  until  his  rebellion  against  the  Babylonians^  (2  Ed. 
24  :  17  ff.),  597-588  B.C.  =  Chaps.  24 ;  23 ;  27-29  ;  51 :  59- 
64(?). 

a.  Chap.  24.  This  chapter,  in  which  the  captives  with 
Jehoiachin  in  Babylonia  are  contrasted  with  the  Jews 
remaining  in  Judah,  can  in  view  of  its  theme  be  placed  with 
good  reason  in  the  early  years  of  Zedekiah's  reign. 

b.  Chap.  23.  From  the  denunciation  of  false  leaders 
(vss.  Iff.))  and  especially  the  prophets  (vss.  Off.),  a  nat- 
ural inference  is  that  the  reference  is  to  those  who  had  so 
much  evil  influence  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah  (cf .  27  :  14  f . ; 
28:  Iff.). 

c.  Chaps.  27-29  belong  to  the  fourth  year  of  Zedekiah's 
reign,  593  b.c.  (cf.  28 :  1) ;  the  occasion  being  a  plot,  insti- 
gated by  Egypt,  to  throw  off  the  Babylonian  control  (cf. 
27  :  3).     Cf.  also  on  the  date  27  :  1,  3,  12,  20. 

The  reading  '' Jehoiakim'*  (27:1)  is  obviously  a  mistake  for 
''Zedekiah"  (cf.  vss.  3,  12,  20).  27:  1  may  be  a  gloss,  as  it  is 
wanting  in  the  LXX.  W.  R.  Smith  considers  it  "sl  mere  acci- 
dental repetition  of  the  title  of  chap.  26."  ^ 

d.  Chap.  51 :  59-64  is  also  dated  from  the  fourth  year  of 
Zedekiah's  reign,  i.e.  593  b.c.  (cf.  vs.  59).  See  further  p. 
168,  iv.  d. 

7.  Prophetic  messages  and  experiences  connected  with  the 
revolt,  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem,  588-586  b.c.  (cf.  2 
Ki.  24  :  20  ff .)  =  Chaps.  21 :  1-10 ;  34 ;  37  :  1-38  :  28a ; 
39:15-18;  32-33;  30-31. 

a.  Chap.  21  :  1-10  dates  from  the  time  that  Nebuchadrez- 
zar's army  came  into  Judea  to  quell  the  rebellion  (vs.  2, 
cf.  2Ki.  25:1),  i.e.  c.  587  B.C. 

b.  Chap.  34.     The  historical  setting  for  this  chapter  is  the 

1  The  terms  Babylonians  and  Chaldeans  are  used  interchangeably  in 
this  volume. 

»  Cf.  0.  T.  Jew.  ChurchS  97. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  111 

time  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  (vs.  1).  It  refers  to  events 
probably  subsequent  to  those  of  the  preceding  sections, 
21 :  1-10.  The  re-enslaving  of  the  emancipated  Jews  re- 
ferred to  (vss.  8  ff.)  undoubtedly  occurred  during  the  tem- 
porary raising  of  the  siege  (cf.  37  :  5  f.,  11). 

c.  Chaps.  37  :  1-38  :  28a.  This  section  belongs  to  the  time 
of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  the  occasion  being  a  temporary 
withdrawal  from  the  city  by  the  Babylonians  to  meet  an 
opposing  Egyptian  army  (cf.  37  :  3  ff.,  7,  11,  etc.). 

d.  Chap.  39  :  15-18.  This  supplement  to  chap.  38  prob- 
ably belongs  also  to  this  time. 

e.  Chaps.  32-33  date  from  the  time  of  the  siege  (cf.  32  :  2  ; 
33  :  1),  in  all  probability  belonging  to  the  second  (i.e.  latter) 
part  of  it. 

/.  Chaps.  30-31,  which  relate  to  the  restoration  of  Judah 
and  Israel,  may  be  subsequent  to  chaps.  32-33.  In  the  main, 
chaps.  30-33  seem  closely  connected,  and  as  a  whole  may 
be  assigned  to  the  same  date.     Cf.  further,  pp.  167  f.,  iii.  i. 

8.  The  capture  of  Jerusalem  (cf.  2  Ki.  25  :  3  ff.),  586  B.C.  = 
Chaps.  38  :  286-39  :  9  ;  52  : 1-27.     Cf.  p.  85,  1.  D. 

a.  Chap.  38 :  28?>-39 : 9  is  an  historical  section  relating 
this  event. 

b.  Chap.  52  :  1-27  is  another  historical  section  relating  the 
siege  and  capture  of  the  city. 

The  following  sections  of  Jeremiah  belong  later :  — 

a.  Chaps.  39 :  10  ff.  +  chaps.  40-44  +  52 :  28-34  =  period  of 
the  Exile.     See  pp.  170  f. 

b.  Practically  all  scholars  consider  chaps.  10 :  1-16  and  50 :  1- 
51  :  58  as  also  belonging  to  the  exilic  period.     See  pp.  179  ff. 

c.  The  following  are  also  some  of  the  more  important  passages 
questioned  in  whole  or  part  by  recent  scholars,  9 :  23-26  ( ?) ; 
17:19-27:  19:3-9,  116-13;  20:14-18;  chaps.  25  (in  part); 
46-49  (in  part) ;  51  :  59-64 ;  30-33  (in  part) ;  39  :  4-13  (not  in 
LXX),  together  with  various  minor  insertions  of  one  or  more 
vss.     Cf.  notes  on  Biblical  material,  pp.  157-169. 

Some  recent  scholars  consider  that  a  number  of  other  portions 
of  the  prophecy  were  added  by  later  hands.  Cf.  espec.  Schmidt 
in  EBi,  ii.  2372  ff. ;   see  also  summary  in  LOT,  272  ff.i 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Jeremiah, 
LOT,  247  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  195  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  76  ff.,  189  ff., 
247.  McFadyen,  Introd.  140  ff.  Comill,  Introd.  295  ff.  Gray,  Introd. 
189  ff.     Moore,  LOT,   162  ff.     HDB,  ii.  569  ff.   (Davidson).     EBi,  ii. 


112      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

G.  Nahum.  The  heading  of  this  prophecy  (1:1)  contains 
no  reference  to  its  date.  The  period,  however,  to  which  it 
belongs  is  defined  by  allusions  to  two  well-known  events  of 
history,  viz.  the  capture  of  No-Amon  (  =  Thebes,  cf .  3  :  8  ff .) 
in  Egypt,  664-662  B.C.,  and  the  destruction  of  Nineveh, 
c.  607  B.C.,  of  which  this  prophecy  is  a  prediction.  Within 
these  limits  different  occurrences  are  held  as  the  most 
probable  occasion  of  its  utterance. 

The  two  events  which  have  found  most  favor  are  the 
attack  upon  Nineveh,  c.  625  B.C.,  by  the  Medes,  which  was 
unsuccessful,  and  their  second  attempt,  c.  607  B.C.  (with  the 
approval  of  the  Chaldeans,  if  not  with  their  actual  assistance), 
which  resulted  in  its  downfall  and  destruction. 

The  vivid  picture  of  the  assault  upon  the  city  and  the 
impending  ruin  predicted  (cf.  especially  2 :  1  ff . ;  3  :  1  ff.) 
give  the  impression  of  imminent  danger  to  Nineveh,  and  the 
description  of  chap.  3 :  18  f.  is  most  naturally  answered  in 
the  final  attack.  A.  B.  Davidson  accordingly  suggests 
610-608  B.C.  as,  ^'well  within  the  range  of  possibility,"  the 
date  of  Nahum.^ 

It  is  thought  by  some  scholars  that  the  prophecy  more  likely 
belongs  earlier  in  the  above-mentioned  period ;  e.g.  652-648  B.C., 
when  the  power  of  Assjrria  was  threatened  by  a  rebellion  in  Babj^- 
lon  headed  by  the  brother  of  Asshurbanipal.  It  is  maintained 
that  the  reference  to  the  destruction  of  Thebes  (3:8  ff.),  as  if 
to  an  event  well  remembered,  harmonizes  better  with  this  earlier 
date.  From  this  standpoint  of  time,  the  vivid  descriptions  of 
attack  upon  the  city  (chaps.  2  f.)  are  due  to  poetic  representation^ 
by  which  the  future  is  depicted  as  if  present. 

2372  ff.,  cf.  2366  ff.  (Schmidt);  iii.  3878  f.,  3894  f.  (Cheyne).  Introds. 
in  Comms.  on  Jer.,  espec.  Camb.  B.  (Streane  =  R.  V.  text) ;  Expos.  B., 
2  vols.  (Ball  and  Bennett);  Cen.  B.,  2  vols.  (Peake).  Bennett,  Primer, 
etc.,  33  ff.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  20  ff.,  169  ff.,  226  ff.,  276  ff.,  470  ff. 
McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  pp.  395  f.  (§  813);  iii.  pp.  160  ff.,  172  ff.,  220  ff., 
274  ff.,  304  ff.  (  =  §§  1065  ff.,  1082  ff.,  1140  ff.,  1214  ff.,  1252  ff.).  Kirk- 
patrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  291  ff.  Driver,  Book  of  Proph.  Jer.  Gillies,  Jer. 
Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  91  ff.  Kent,  Divided 
Kingd.  168  f .,  175  f .,  181  f .,  190  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  275  f .,  278  f., 
286  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  201  ff.,  229  ff.  Budde,  Relig.  Isr., 
186  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  385  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  23,  376,  cf. 
441  ff.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  315  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Grit.,  etc., 
163  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  115,  cf.  65  f.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  177  ff. 
Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  190  ff.,  212  fif. 
^  Davidson,  Nah.,  etc.,  17. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED    KINGDOM  113 

The  authenticity  of  chap.  1  in  large  part  is  questioned  by  many 
scholars  to-day.     Cf.  further  note  p.  159,  v.  n} 

H.  Hahakkuk.  The  heading  of  this  prophecy  (1  :  1)  as 
in  Nahum  (cf.  1:1)  is  without  any  chronological  statement. 

On  the  ground  of  the  Chaldeans  being  referred  to  as  an 
oppressive  power  (1 :  5  ff.),  it  is  generally  allowed  that  the 
prophecy  belongs  after  625  B.C.,  when  Babylonia  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Chaldean  Nabopolassar  began  to  grow  in 
strength.  The  precise  date,  however,  as  in  the  case  of 
Nahum,  is  uncertain. 

From  the  description  of  the  formidable  character  of  the 
Chaldeans  (cf.  1 :  5  ff .,  14-16  ;  2  :  5  ff.)  it  seems  most  reason- 
able to  think  of  their  power  as  well  estabhshed,  when  their 
mihtary  prowess  had  become  apparent.  Such  a  situation 
is  answered  well  in  the  impression  w^hich  must  have  been  pro- 
duced in  Palestine,  after  the  Chaldeans  under  Nebuchadrez- 
zar had  defeated  the  Egyptian  army  at  Carchemish,  c.  604 
B.C.  This  date  is  also  favored  by  the  description  of  the 
evils  rampant  in  Judah  (1 :  1-4),  which  correspond  to  the 
condition  of  affairs  in  th*e  days  of  Jehoiakim  (cf .  Jer.  7  :  8  f . ; 
9  :  3  f.,  etc.).  Such  abuses  could  scarcely  have  been  possible 
in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  The  contact  of  this  same  power  with 
Western  Asia  seems  to  be  alluded  to  in  2 :  17. 

The  reign  of  Jehoiakim  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Carche- 
mish, c.  604  B.C.,  and  before  his  rebellion  against  the  Chal- 
deans (2  Ki.  24  : 1  f .),  i.e.  c.  ^04-602  B.C.,  may  in  view  of  these 
facts  be  assumed  as  a  probabIe~Hate  for  this  prophecy.  Cf. 
also  the  date  c.  600  B.C.,  according  to  some  authorities. 

From  1 :  6  which  implies  that  the  Chaldean  dominion  is  not  yet 
estabhshed,  and  vs.  5  which  refers  to  the  unexpected  character 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Nahum, 
LOT,  334  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  250  f.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  60,  189.  Mc- 
Fadyen,  Introd.  206  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  348  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  220  f. 
Moore,  LOT,  201  f.  HDB,  iii.  473  ff.  (Kennedy).  EBi,  iii.  3259  ff. 
(Budde);  3892  f.  (Cheyne).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  31.  Kent,  Ser- 
mons, etc.,  19,  155  ff.  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Nahum,  espec.  Int.  Crit. 
(J.  M.  P.  Smith) ;  Camb.  B.  (Davidson) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  voL 
2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Cen.  B.  (Driver).  McCurdy,  HPM,  ii.  pp.  411  ff. 
(§§831  ff.).  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  239  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
ii.  381.  Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  167  f.  H.  P.  Smith,  0.  T.  Hist.  277  f. 
Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  29,  415,  418,  441  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  141  ff. 
Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  i.  pp.  173  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  77  f.  Sanders, 
Hist.  Hebrs.  183  f.,  186  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  201  f. 


114      AN    INTRODUCTION   TO    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

of  this  event,  it  is  possible  that  the  section  1 :  5-11  is  earher  than 
the  rest  of  the  book.  Davidson,  however,  thinks  this  is  a  pre- 
diction only  in  form,  and  that  it  belongs  to  the  same  time  as  the 
context.^ 

Some  scholars  take  the  section  1 : 2-4  (which  commonly  is 
referred  to  the  oppression  of  the  righteous  Jews  by  their  wicked 
countrymen)  as  a  description  of  the  oppression  by  a  foreign 
power,  either  Assyria,  c.  615  B.C.  (Budde),  or  possibly  Egypt, 
608-604  B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  23 :  21  ff.,  G.  A.  Smith),  to  punish  which 
Jehovah  is  to  raise  up  the  Chaldeans.  Budde  suggests  the  fol- 
lowing readjustment  in  the  order  of  the  text,  1 :  2-4,  12-17  (also 
describing  the  Assyrians),  2  :  1-4  and  then  1 :  5-11  ( =  Chaldeans). 
The  following  are  the  principal  reasons  for  this  theory  given 
by  Budde :  (a)  the  vivid  portrayal  of  the  oppressive  power 
(1 :  14  f .,  cf.  2:5)  is  appropriate  to  the  Assyrians  but  not  to  the 
Chaldeans ;  (6)  such  a  description,  if  referring  to  the  Chaldeans, 
could  only  have  been  possible  after  Judah  had  been  for  some  time 
under  their  dominion;  and  (c)  the  personification  of  the  enemy 
as  a  fisher  (1 :  15  f .)  is  especially  fitting  as  applied  to  the  Assyrians.^ 

For  other  arrangements  of  this  section  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms. 

The  authenticity  of  chap.  3  and  chap.  2  in  part  (especially 
VS3.  12-14)  is  questioned  by  many  scholars  to-day.  Cf.  notes, 
pp.  161  f.,  iii.  /.  g.^ 

/.  Ezekiel.  Ezekiel  began  to  prophesy  in  the  fifth  year  of 
Jehoiachin's  captivity  (1 : 2,  cf.  2  Ki.  24 :  8  ff .),  592  B.C. 
He  was  a  member  of  this  body  of  captives  and  his  ministry 
was  to  them.  Later  when  the  second  body  of  Jews  was  taken 
into  captivity,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C. 
(cf.  2  Ki.  25: 11  ff.),  it  is  probable  that  his  ministry  also 
included  this  band. 

1  Cf.  Davidson,  Nah.,  etc.,  48. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  1922  ff.  (Budde).     Budde,  Relig.  Isr.,  179,  n.  1. 

3  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Habak- 
kuk,  LOT,  337  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  251  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  74  ff.,  190. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  210  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  351  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  221  ff. 
Moore,  LOT,  202  ff.  HDB,  ii.  269  ff.  (Driver).  EBi,  ii.  1921  ff.  (Budde) ; 
iii.  3893  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Habak.,  espec.  Int.  Crit. 
(W.  Hayes  Ward) ;  Camb.  B.  (Davidson) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII, 
vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith);  Cen.  B.  (Driver).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  32  f. 
Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  23,  221  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  210  ff.  (§§  1128 
ff.).  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  269  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  391  f. 
Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  168,  188  f.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  285  f .  Wade, 
O.  T.  Hist.  29,  441  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  159  ff.  Sanders,  etc., 
Prophs.  i.  pp.  219  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  78  f.  Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and 
Times,  132  ff.     Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  188  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  220. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  115 

The  reference  to  the  30th  year  (1:1)  is  obscure,  (a)  Possibly 
it  may  refer  to  the  prophet's  own  age.  Other  suggestions  are ; 
(6)  from  the  date  of  the  discovery  of  Deuteronomy,  621  b.c.  = 
c.  591  B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  22 :  3  ff.) ;  or  (c)  from  some  Babylonian  date 
now  unknown. 

This  book  of  prophecies,  unlike  the  books  of  Isaiah  and 
Jeremiah,  is  practically  arranged  chronologically,  and  exact 
dates  are  found  with  many  of  the  sections  {e.g.  1:3;  8:1; 
20:1,  etc.).  The  numbered  months  in  this  prophecy  are 
probably  those  of  the  Babylonian  year,  which  began  March- 
April.  (See  p.  205.)  In  chaps.  1-7  the  only  month  referred 
to  is  the  fourth  (1 :  1  f.),  viz.  June- July. 

The  following  sections  and  chapters  belong  before  the 
capture  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C. 

a.  Chaps.  1-7,  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity 
(1:2)  =  June-July,  592  b.c. 

h.  Chaps.  8-11,  in  the  sixth  year  of  this  captivity  (8 :  1) 
=  Aug.-Sept.  591  B.C. 

c.  Chaps.  12-19  are  undated,  but  they  undoubtedly  are  a 
little  later  than  the  preceding  section. 

Note  that  chap.  17  impKes  the  disloyalty  of  Zedekiah,  which 
led  to  his  rebellion  against  the  Chaldeans,  588-587  b.c.  Hence 
it  may  have  been  uttered  c.  590  b.c.     See  further  p.  168,  iv.  e.  J. 

d.  Chaps,  20-23,  in  the  seventh  year  of  this  captivity 
(20  : 1)  =  July-Aug.  590  b.c. 

e.  Chap.  24  is  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  captivity  (vs.  1) 
=  Dec-Jan.  588-587  b.c. 

/.  Chap.  29 :  1-16  belongs  to  the  tenth  year  (cf.  vs.  1) 
=  Dec-Jan.  587-586  b.c. 

g.  Chap.  30  : 1-19  is  a  sequel  to  chap.  29  :  1-16. 

h.  Chap.  30 :  20-26  dates  from  the  eleveRthyear  of  this 
captivity,  three  months  before  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (cf. 
vs.  20  with  2  Ki.  25  :  2  f.)  =  March-April,  586  b.c.  n^ 

i.  Chap.  31  dates  from  the  same  year,  five  weeks  before  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  (vs.  1,  cf.  2  Ki.  25 :  2  f.)  =  May-June, 
586  B.C. 

In  the  above  chapters  there  is  practically  no  section  the 
authenticity  of  which  is  questioned.  This  holds  true  as  well 
for  the  remainder  of  the  prophecy ;  cf.  however,  pp.  191  f., 
iii.  /. 


116     AN    INTRODUCTION   TO    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

The  remaining  chapters  and  sections  of  Ezekiel  belong  to 
the  period  of  the  Exile.     See  pp.  171  f.,  2.  B. ;  cf.  190  f.^ 

3.  Wisdom  Literature.^    Pre-Exilic  Collections  of 
Proverbs  (?) 

The  book  of  Proverbs  is  composed  of  different  sections 
which  are  clearly  defined,  viz. 

a.  Chap.  1 :  1-6,  General  introduction  or  prologue. 

6,  Chaps.  1:7-9: 18,  ''The  Praise  of  Wisdom"  (Ewald's 
designation). 

c.  Chaps.  10  :  1-22  :  16,  ''Proverbs  of  Solomon"  (cf.  10  :  1). 

d.  Chaps.  22  :  17-24  :  22,  Sayings  of  the  wise  (cf.  22  :  17a). 

e.  Chap.  24 :  23-34,  Additional  sayings  of  the  wise  (cf . 
24:23a). 

/.  Chaps.  25-29,  "Proverbs  of  Solomon"  (cf.  25:  1). 

g.  Chap.  30,  "Words  of  Agur,"  etc.  (cf.  vs.  1). 

h.  Chap.  31 :  1-9,  "Words  of  King  Lemuel"  (cf.  vs.  la). 

i.  Chap.  31 :  10-31,  Praise  of  the  model  housewife  ("vir- 
tuous woman,"  vs.  10). 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  above  headings  that  apparently 
a  large  portion  of  the  book  is  attributed  to  Solomon's  author- 
ship (cf.  1:1;  10 :  1 ;  25 :  1).  That  he  was  a  writer  of 
proverbs  is  attested  by  the  historical  literature  (cf.  1  Ki. 
4  :  29-34) .  This  statement,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  David's 
.relation  to  the  Psalter  (cf.  pp.  68  ff.),  merely  points  to  the 
possibility  that  there  may  be  Solomonic  proverbs  in  the 
present  collection,  but  does  not  prove  their  presence  there. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  historical  value  of  the  statement  in 
1  Ki.  4 :  29-34  is  questioned  by  a  number  of  recent  scholars.     It 

1  Cf .  for  furthur  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Ezekiel, 
LOT,  278  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  213  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  86  ff.  McFadyen, 
Introd.  162  ff .  Cornill,  Introd.  314  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  198  ff .  Moore,  LOT, 
172  ff.  HDB,  i.  814  ff.  (Skinner).  EBi,  ii,  1460  ff.,  cf.  1456  ff.  (Toy) ;  iii. 
2737  f.  (Gray) ;  3880  ff.,  cf.  3895  f.  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on 
Ezek.,  espec.  Camb.  B.  (Davidson) ;  Expos.  B.  (Skinner) ;  West.  C.  (Red- 
path)  ;  Cen.  B.  (Lofthouse).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  48  ff.  Kent,  Sermons, 
etc.,  24  f.,  238  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  245  ff.  (§§  1174  ff.).  Kirk- 
patrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  326  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  115  ff.  Budde, 
Relig.  Isr.  199  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  15  ff.  Kent,  Divided 
Kingd.  170  f.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  5f.,  32  f.,  45  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist. 
301  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  24,  384,  441  ff.  Sanders  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  19  ff., 
cf .  72  ff.,  97  ff..  Ill  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  193  ff.  Toy,  Ezek.  (SBOT). 
Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.  etc.,  233  ff.  2  gee  p.  235,  n.  \ 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  117 

is  considered  by  them  as  Deuteronomic  {i.e.  exilic)  in  origin,  or 
a  post-exilic  addition.  On  the  other  hand,  Duhm's  opinion  is 
that  there  must  be  a  foundation  for  the  statement  of  these  verses, 
and  that  the  proverbs  referred  to  must  have  been  written  down  in 
whole  or  in  part.^ 

In  the  book  of  Proverbs  as  in  the  Psalter  the  titles  cannot 
be  accepted  as  absolutely  authoritative.  Thus  the  super- 
scription (1:1),  ''The  proverbs  of  Solomon  the  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel,"  which  seems  to  stand /or  the  whole  hook  cannot 
evidently  apply  to  such  sections  as  those  indicated  above  as 
d,  e,  g,  h,  and  probably  i,  which  by  their  respective  headings 
are  shown  to  be  by  different  authors.  This  naturally  raises 
the  question  whether  all  the  remaining  portions  of  the  book 
belong  to  Solomon. 

The  Solomonic  headings  (1:1;  10  :  1 ;  25  :  1)  have  been 
taken  in  different  ways,  either  (a)  as  titles  of  original  Solo- 
monic collections,  which  were  still  retained  as  they  gradually 
were  expanded  by  the  incorporation  of  various  non-Solo- 
monic elements ;  or  (b)  as  titles  which  were  added  at  later 
times  and  which  represent  uncritical  tradition.  Just  as  in 
the  course  of  time  the  name  of  Moses  represented  the  Law, 
and  that  of  David  Psalmody,  so  the  name  of  Solomon  came 
to  stand  for  a  large  section  of  Proverbial  literature. 

As  in  the  Psalter,  the  decision  of  date  and  authorship,  so 
far  as  these  can  be  determined,  rests  largely  upon  data 
gathered  from  the  collections  themselves;  only  here  the 
difficulty  of  coming  to  a  conclusion  is  even  greater,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  historical  allusions. 

Two  opposing  views  are  held  to-day  regarding  the  age  of  the 
different  collections  of  Proverbs.  One  is  that  in  their  present 
form  they  are  all  post-exiHc.  Some  of  the  grounds  cited  in  favor 
of  this  view  are  (a)  the  similarity  of  form  among  the  proverbs, 
corresponding  to  a  finished  standard;  (b)  the  pure  monotheism 
implied,  and  the  absence  of  allusion  to  idolatry  to  which  so  many 
references  are  found  in  pre-exiUc  prophets,  even  as  late  as  Ezekiel 
(cf .  chaps.  6  ;  8  ;  and  23) ;  (c)  while  there  are  manj^  resemblances 
in  the  book  of  Proverbs  to  prophetic  teaching,  the  prophets  deal 
essentially  with  the  nation,  the  proverbs  with  the  individual, 
which  points  to  post-exiHc  times;    (d)  the  indebtedness  alleged 

1  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3795  (Duhm).  See  also  Skinner,  Eli.  in  loc.  for  the 
origin  and  historical  value  of  this  section. 


118      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

of  some  of  the  philosophical  sections  to  Greek  thought,  also  the 
humanistic  standpoint  favor  this  late  date;  and  (e)  the  social 
conditions  indicated,  —  the  various  crimes  of  robbery,  murder, 
etc.  (cf.  1 :  10  ff. ;  chap.  7,  etc.),  —  are  claimed  to  be  specially 
applicable  to  post-exilic  cities.  For  further  arguments  for  this 
view  cf.  p.  313,  v.  q. 

The  other  general  position  is  that  with  the  exception  of  chaps. 
30-31  the  book  is  pre-exiHc.  Some  of  the  grounds  in  support 
of  this  view'  are :  (a)  pre-exilic  references  to  the  wise  men  as 
forming  a  leading  class  (cf .  Isa.  3:3;  Jer.  18:18;  Deut.  16 :  19, 
etc.) ;  (b)  the  titles  of  chaps.  1-29  represent  traditions  with  which 
there  is  nothing  inconsistent  in  the  proverbs  themselves ;  (c)  ab- 
sence of  references  to  the  ceremonial  law  points  to  pre-exihc  times ; 
(d)  the  prevailing  assumption,  that  righteousness  is  followed  by 
well-being  and  sin  by  suffering,  favors  the  unquestioning  period 
before  these  problems  were  considered  in  such  books  as  Job, 
Ecclesiastes  and  some  of  the  psalms  ;  (e)  the  peaceful  and  contented 
spirit  indicated  in  the  collections  favors  this  date;  and  (/)  the 
individualistic  tone  of  the  proverbs  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  wise  men  were  teachers,  applying  truth  to  everyday 
life.i 

It  may  be  added  that  the  former  view  is  held  by  most  German 
critics,  and  is  gaining  favor  among  English  and  American  scholars. 
The  present  trend  of  opinion  is  against  Solomonic  authorship  and 
pre-exilic  dating  of  proverbs,  as  it  is  against  Davidic  authorship 
and  pre-exilic  dating  of  psalms. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  the  view  of  G.  A.  Smith,  that  while  it  is 
impossible  to  give  the  different  stages  in  the  growth  of  the  Wisdom 
literature,  '4t  is  possible  that  several  of  the  collections  of  the 
Book  of  Proverbs  were  complete  before  the  Exile,  and  very  prob- 
able that  they  contain  sayings  from  the  earlier  life  of  the  people."  ^ 

a.  Chaps.  10  : 1-22  :  16.  In  turning  now  to  the  examina- 
tion of  particular  sections,  the  collection  chaps.  10  : 1-22  :  16 
will  be  considered  first,  as  it  is  generally  allowed  to  be  the 
oldest.  The  title  of  this  collection  (10 :  1,  wanting  in  the 
LXX),  however,  does  not  necessarily  preclude  the  possibility 
of  proverbs  later  than  Solomon's  day  being  found  in  it,  as  it 
may  originally  have  stood  (as  already  noticed,  p.  117)  as  the 
heading  of  a  much  shorter  collection,  which  subsequently 

^  Reference  to  the  king  {e.g.  16 :  10,  12  ff.,  etc.)  is  sometimes  urged  in 
proof  of  the  pre-exilic  date  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  but  see  Gray,  Introd. 
145  f.     Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  265,  n.  1. 

2  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  286.  See  also  discussion,  Gray, 
Introd.  143  ff.     Cf.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  202  f. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED    KINGDOM  119 

was  expanded  to  its  present  extent.  That  this  whole  section 
was  not  derived  from  the  same  period  is  a  natural  conclusion 
to  be  drawn  from  the  recurrence  therein  of  the  same  proverb, 
or  part  of  a  proverb,  which  can  scarcely  be  accounted  for  on 
the  supposition  that  it  belongs  to  the  same  period  or  possibly 
the  same  author.  In  fact  this  section  may  represent  a 
compilation  of  different  shorter  ones. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  parallel  proverbs  in  this  collec- 
tion, 10 :  1,  cf.  15 :  20;  10:2,  cf.  11:4;  13  :  14,  cf .  14  :  27  ;  14:20, 
ef .  19  :  4 ;  16  :  2,  cf .  21  :  2.  For  partial  parallels,  cf .  10  :  15  wdth 
18:11;  15:33  with  18:12.  According  to  Cheyne  nineteen 
cases  of  repetition  wholly  or  in  part  are  to  be  found  in  this 
collection.^ 

Some  of  the  proverbs  of  this  collection  seem  very  inappro- 
priate in  the  mouth  of  Solomon,  from  all  that  is  known  of  him 
in  the  book  of  Kings.  Thus  (a)  the  pure  monotheism  ex- 
pressed in  15  :  16  and  14  :  27  is  inconsistent  with  his  idolatry 
(cf.  1  Ki.  11  :  4  ff.)  ;  (6)  compare  also  the  commendation  of 
monogamy  (18 :  22  and  19 :  13  f.)  with  facts  of  his  domestic 
life  (1  Ki.  11:1  ff.) ;  and  (c)  the  deprecation  of  wealth 
(15  :  16,  etc.)  with  his  great  revenues  (1  E[i.  9  :  28  and  10  :  14 
ff.).  Many  of  the  proverbs  of  this  section  represent  the 
standpoint  of  a  man  of  the  middle  class,  not  that  of  a  king. 

Cf .  for  example  the  proverbs  referring  to  the  king,  16 :  10-15 ; 
19  :  12 ;  20 :  8,  26,  28  ;  21 : 1,  which  express  the  feelings  and  atti- 
tude of  a  subject. 

It  is  easier,  however,  to  single  out  those  proverbs  which  are 
inconsistent  with  Solomonic  authorship  than  to  definitely 
point  to  those  which  seem  clearly  to  be  his.  In  view  of  all 
the  facts,  therefore,  as  definite  a  conclusion  as  can  reasonably 
be  formed  is  that  this  section  is  composed  of  proverbs 
emanating  from  different  wise  men,  among  which  a  Solomonic 
nucleus  may  be  included. 

In  reference  to  the  date  of  this  compilation  as  a  whole, 
from  (a)  the  settled  and  moderately  prosperous  condition  of 
society  reflected;  (5)  the  attitude  of  respect  for  the  king 
(e.g.  16  :  10-15  ;  19  :  12  ;  20  :  8,  26,  28,  etc.),  it  has  generally 
been  assigned  to  the  period  of  the  early  monarchy,  before 

1  Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol.  133. 


120     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

the  social  evils  depicted  in  the  eighth  century  prophets  be- 
came acute,  e.g.  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  876-851  b.c. 
(Delitzsch) ;  or  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  (Ewald). 
The  compilation,  on  this  supposition,  would  then  represent 
proverbs  which  were  ancient  and  regarded  as  Solomonic  at 
that  time. 

Kent  considers  that  the  original  collection  of  Proverbs  is  found 
in  chaps.  10 :  1-22 :  16  and  dates  it  621-600  b.c.i  Formerly  he 
dated  the  collection  as  a  whole  c.  615  b.c.  and  following  Davidson 
considered  chaps.  25-29  the  earliest  compilation. ^ 

In  view,  however,  of  the  strong  arguments  adduced  in 
favor  of  post-exilic  dates  for  this  section  and  chaps.  25-29 
(cf.  below,  b),  —  or  at  least  for  a  post-exilic  revision  of  earlier 
collections,  —  as  conservative  a  conclusion  as  seems  war- 
ranted is  that  chaps.  10 : 1-22 :  16  contain  probably  a  pre- 
exihc  basis  or  nucleus. 

The  acceptance  of  a  pre-exilic  date  for  chaps.  10 : 1-22  :  16  would 
not  preclude  the  possibihty  of  subsequent  revisions  and  addi- 
tions, e.g.  post-exihc.  Such  might  account  for  (a)  the  note  of 
strict  monotheism;  (b)  the  absence  of  reference  to  idolatry; 
(c)  the  fact  that  monogamy  is  taken  for  granted  (18  :  22 ;  19  :  13  f.) ; 
and  (d)  also  the  spirit  of  reflection  {e.g.  16  :  4 ;  20  :  27).     P.  313,  v.  s. 

6.  Chaps.  25-29.  In  determining  the  date  of  this  section 
much  depends  upon  the  value  attached  to  the  heading  (25  : 1 
=  ''These  also  are  proverbs  of  Solomon,  which  the  men  of 
Hezekiah  king  of  Judah  copied  out").  Driver  thinks  there 
is  no  reason  to  question  its  accuracy.^  But  by  many  this 
title  is  considered  to  be  of  later  date,  having  only  the  value 
to  be  attached  to  tradition.  In  view  of  this  it  is  necessary  to 
fall  back  upon  the  data  furnished  by  the  chapters,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  former  section  considered. 

Those  who  question  the  authenticity  of  25 :  1  call  attention  to 
these  facts  :  (a)  that  the  third  person  shows  that  it  was  not  writ- 
ten by  the  ''men  of  Hezekiah";  and  (6)  the  expression  ''king 
of  Judah"  points  to  a  date  when  there  was  no  king  of  Judah, 
i.e.  after  586  b.c. 

^  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  table  in  Preface. 

2  Cf.  Kent,  Wise  Men,  etc.,  67  f.,  72  f. 

3  LOT,  407.  It  is  to  be.  noted  that  the  word  '*  also  "  is  wanting  in  the 
LjXX. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   DIVIDED   KINGDOM  121 

In  this  collection  as  in  chaps.  10 : 1-22 :  16  some  of  the 
individual  proverbs  are  out  of  harmony  with  Solomon  as  their 
author.  Thus  (a)  the  picture  of  a  king  in  29 : 4  does  not 
comport  with  what  is  known  of  the  oppressive  measures  of 
his  reign  (cf.  1  Ki.  12 : 3  ff.  with  1  Ki.  4 :  1  ff. ;  9 :  15  ff.) ; 
and  (6)  in  25  :  2  ff .  the  king  is  described  from  the  standpoint 
of  a  subject  not  that  of  a  king.  This  holds  true  of  the  point 
of  view  of  many  of  the  proverbs  of  this  collection.  The 
conclusion  then  in  reference  to  Solomon's  relation  to  these 
proverbs  is  naturally  the  same  as  in  chaps.  10 :  1-22 :  16. 

The  prevaihng  view  is  that  this  section  is  later  than  10  :  1- 
22 :  16  owing  to  the  fact  (a)  that  the  condition  of  affairs 
reflected  in  many  of  the  proverbs  seems  less  settled  and 
prosperous  than  in  those  of  chaps.  10  ff. ;  and  (h)  that  the 
king  is  referred  to  as  an  oppressor  (29  :  2) .  It  is  the  view  ac- 
cordingly of  many  scholars  that  the  time  preceding  the  down- 
fall of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  722-721  B.C.  (cf .  2  Ki.  15  :  8  ff.) 
harmonizes  with  these  conditions,  and  corresponds  approxi- 
mately to  the  date  in  the  heading  (25 :  1).^ 

Owing,  however,  to  the  weighty  arguments  in  favor  of  a 
post-exilic  date  for  this  section  as  well  as  for  10  : 1-22  :  16,  a 
similar  conclusion  seems  warranted  here  also  (cf.  above,  a). 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  Ewald  considered  that  in  28 : 2  f .  and 
29  :  2,  4,  11  f.,  16  there  are  references  to  the  downfall  of  the  North- 
em  Kingdom.     This  inference  Nowack  questions.^ 

Among  the  reasons  cited  for  the  post-exilic  date  of  this  section 
are  also  :  (a)  the  contrast  between  the  righteous  and  the  wicked, 
not  between  Israel  and  the  world  (cf.  25  :  26  ;  28  :  1,  5  ff. ;  29  :  2, 
etc.);  (b)  the  references  to  the  ''law"  {e.g.  28:4-9;  29:18), 
which  it  is  claimed  means  the  legal  code,  not  the  prophetic  use 
of  the  term  as  ''instruction";    (c)  the  evils  which  apparently 

1  Cf.,  however,  the  view  of  a  number  of  scholars  that  chaps.  25-29, 
especially  25-27,  are  older  than  10 :  1-22 :  16,  or  contain  in  part  older 
proverbs.  The  following  are  some  of  the  reasons  for  this  conclusion ; 
(a)  the  proverbs  of  this  collection,  it  is  claimed,  are  less  regular  in  form, 
thus  indicating  an  earUer  age;  (6)  the  proverbs  are  more  epigrammatic 
and  forcible  in  many  cases  {e.g.  25  :  20,  22,  25,  28  ;  26  :  2  f.,  11,  23  ;  27  :  17, 
19,  22) ;  and  also  (c)  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  proverbs  are  secular 
rather  than  religious  in  their  expression.  (Opposite  conclusions  have 
been  reached  from  proverbs  common  to  the  two  sections,  —  according 
to  Cheyne  =  11  cases,  cf.  Job  and  Sol.  143.)  Cf.  further,  HDB,  iv.  141 
(Nowack).  Cornill,  Introd.  446.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  261  fif. ;  also 
art.  "Proverbs,"  Ency.  Brit.  (Davidson). 

2  Cf.  HDB,  iv.  1416  (Nowack). 


122      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

are  those  of  an  oppressive  government,  which  uses  a  part  of  its 
people  as  instruments  for  this  purpose  (cf .  25  :  3  if. ;  28  :  2  f .,  12, 
15  ff. ;  29  :  2) ;  and  (d)  the  fact  also  that  no  catastrophe  is  appar- 
ently impending,  as  would  naturally  be  reflected  if  it  belonged 
to  the  time  of  Hezekiah. 

On  the  assumption,  it  may  be  added,  of  a  pre-exilic  date  for 
chaps.  25-29,  it  would  also  be  possible  to  hold,  as  suggested  above 
(pp.  120 ;  313,  V.  s.),  that  they  may  have  had  a  post-exilic  revision. 

c.  Chaps.  22  :  17-24 :  22,  ^^  Words  of  the  wise"  (cf.  22 :  17a) 
and  24  :  23-34,  additional,  ''Sayings  of  the  wise''  (cf.  24  :  23). 
These  two  sections  are  generally  regarded  as  later  than 
chaps.  10  :  1-22  :  16,  to  which  they  form  appendices.  They 
are  not  improbably  later  also  than  chaps.  25-29. 

The  reasons  for  this  conclusion  are :  (a)  their  position 
as  appendices  to  10  :  1-22  :  16  ;  (h)  the  more  complicated  and 
elaborate  type  of  proverb  contained  therein  {e.g.  23  :  29-35 ; 
24 :  30-34) ;  and  (c)  cf .  also  the  repetition  of  thought  from 
the  main  section  {e.g.  24 :  5  f.  with  11 :  14 ;  24 :  19  f.  with 
13 : 9) ;  also  the  use  of  older  models  indicating  a  later  date 
(cf.  23:27  with  22:  14). 

It  is  impossible,  however,  to  determine  definitely  the  date. 
From  the  reference  to  fearing  Jehovah  and  the  king  (24  :  21) 
their  pre-exilic  compilation  is  claimed.  ''The  vice,  extrava- 
gance and  oppression"  described  (cf.  22  :  22  f . ;  23  :  1  ff., 
20  ff.,  26  fT.,  etc.)  is  in  harmony  with  all  that  is  known  of  the 
eighth  and  seventh  centuries  B.C.,  from  the  prophetical 
writings.  The  hortatory  tone  (cf.  22:17  ff. ;  24:23  ff.), 
from  its  similarity  to  Deuteronomy  and  Jeremiah,  favors  a 
time  at  least  as  late  as  Josiah's  reign,  639-608  B.C. 

This  conclusion,  however,  though  held  by  eminent  scholars 
is  far  from  certain,  as  there  are  other  reasons  which,  taken 
with  the  above,  strongly  favor  a  post-exilic  date,  cf .  p.  314,  v.  t. 

The  remaining  chapters  and  sections  of  Proverbs  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  Grecian  period.     (Pp.  283  ff. ;  312  ff.,  v.)  ^ 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Proverbs, 
pp.  283  ff.  See  also  LOT,  392  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  152  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  151  ff.,  199.  McFadyen,  Introd.  256  ff.  CorniU,  Introd.  437  ff. 
Gray,  Introd.  142  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  228  ff.  HDB,  iv.  139  ff.  (Nowack) ; 
13a  (Budde) ;  9246  ff.  (Siegfried) ;  5656  ff .  (Flint) ;  extra  vol.  7286  f. 
(Kautzsch).  EBi,  iii.  3906  ff.  (Toy) ;  3794  f.,  3801  (Duhm) ;  iv.  5322  ff. 
(Toy) ;  cf.  4686  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Prov.,  espec.  Int. 
Crit.  (Toy) ;  Camb.  B.  (Perowne) ;  Expos.  B.  (Horton) ;  Cen.  B.  (Martin). 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   DIVIDED   KINGDOM  123 


4.   Legal  Literature.     The  Deuteronomic  Code 

Reference  has  previously  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the 
law  book  discovered  in  621  B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  22 : 3  ff.)  was  the 
main  section  of  the  present  book  of  Deuteronomy  (cf.  p.  23). 

Scholars  are  not  agreed  whether  chaps.  5-11,  which  form  an 
introduction  to  the  legal  portion  proper,  are  a  part  of  the  original 
law  book  or  not.  According  to  some  authorities  they  belong  to 
the  same  author  dating  somewhat  later;  according  to  others 
they  were  prefixed  by  another  (later)  writer. 

This  view  in  reference  to  Deuteronomy,  which  is  now 
commonly  held  by  Old  Testament  critics,  is  based  upon  the 
following  facts :  — 

a.  The  discovered  law  book  is  referred  to  in  the  book  of 
Kings  as  the  ''words  of  the  book  of  the  covenant, "  or  ''words 
of  this  covenant"  (cf.  2  Ki.  23 :  1  f.,  21).  This  is  the  same 
term  applied  to  the  Deuteronomic  Code  {e.g.  Deut.  29 :  1, 
9,  21,  25 ;  cf.  5  :  2  f. ;  17  :  2,  etc.).  It  is  also  designated  the 
"book  of  the  law"  (2  Ki.  22:8,  11;  cf.  23:24  f.).  This 
name  is  found  in  the  Pentateuch  only  in  Deuteronomy 
(D  or  D^)  and  means  there  the  Deuteronomic  legislation 
(e.g.  Deut.  28  :  61 ;  29  :  20  ;  30  :  10,  etc.). 

b.  The  different  measures  of  religious  reform,  based  upon 
the  discovered  law  book,  which  Josiah  carried  out,  viz. 
relating  to  feasts,  wizards,  centralization  of  worship  and  star 
cultus,  etc.,  correspond  more  closely  to  the  provisions  of 
Deuteronomy  than  to  any  other  one  of  the  legal  codes. 

This  correspondence  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  following 
passages,  2  Ki.  23  :  4-6  with  Deut.  17  :  3  ;  12  :  2  f .  2  Ki.  23  :  7 
with  Deut.  23  :  17  f.  2  Ki.  23  :  8,  13  ff.,  19  with  Deut.  12  :  2  f. ; 
16  :  21  f .  2  Ki.  23  :  %  with  Deut.  18  :  6,  8.  2  Ki.  23  :  10  with 
Deut.  18  :  10.  2  Ki.  23  :  13,  5  with  Deut.  6  :  14  ;  11  :  28 ;  17:3, 
etc.  2  Ki.  23  :  21,  23  with  Deut.  16  :  5  f.  2  Ki.  23  :  24  with  Deut. 
18:llff. 

Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  10,"61,  95  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  ill.  pp.  52  f.  (§  910). 
Kent,  Wise  Men,  etc.,  espec.  62  ff.  Kent,  United  Kingd.  185  ff.  Kent, 
Divided  Kingd.  181  f.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  432  f.  Wade,  O.  T. 
Hist.  19  f.,  311.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  255  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern 
Grit.,  etc.,  286,  300  ff.  Davidson  on  Prov.  in  "Book  by  Book,"  172  ff. 
Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol.  117  ff.,  165  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  xvi, 
126  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  337  ff.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church', 
111  f.     Sanday,  Inspir.  200  ff.,  247  ff.    Cf.  Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  343  ff. 


124      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  several  of  these  laws  are  found  as 
well  in  other  Codes,  but  Josiah's  action  was  evidently  based  on  a 
law  book  discovered  which  contained  all  these  provisions.  Further, 
the  Passover  observed  was  more  in  accord  with  the  enactment 
of  Deuteronomy  (cf.  chap.  16)  than  with  the  provisions  for  the 
observance  of  this  feast  given  in  any  of  the  other  Codes. 

c.  The  king's  evident  consternation  when  the  law  book  was 
read  to  him  (2  Ki.  22 :  11) ;  also  the  reference  to  ''all  the 
words  (i.e.  of  evil)  of  the  book"  (vs.  16)  can  be  most  naturally 
explained  by  such  passages  in  Deuteronomy  as  12 : 2-7 ; 
18  :  9-14 ;  chap.  28  (especially  vss.  15  ff.) ;  cf.  6 :  4  f.,  14  f. 

The  code  of  laws,  Ex.  20 :  22-23  :  33  is  also  called  the  ''Book  of 
the  Covenant"  (Ex.  24  :  7),  but  it  does  not  fulfil  the  conditions  so 
well  as  Deuteronomy.  Thus  (a)  the  Code  in  Exodus  contains 
little  denunciation,  nor  do  its  provisions  correspond  so  well  with 
Josiah's  reforms :  e.g.  (a)  prohibition  of  idolatry,  one  vs.  (Ex. 
22  :  20),  cf.  six  vss.  in  Deut.  (17  :  2-7),  in  which  worship  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  is  specified.  Note  also  the  fact  that  star  cultus  was 
first  introduced  into  Judah  in  the  second  half  of  the  8th  century 
B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  16  :  10  f .  with  23  :  11  f .,  4  f.,  also  21 :  3,  5) ;  (/S)  again, 
only  one  vs.  is  found  in  the  code  in  Exodus  relating  to  the  Passover, 
under  the  name  of  "unleavened  bread,"  Ex.  23:  15  as  cf.  with 
Deut.  16 :  1-8.  And  (6)  further,  taking  the  legal  material  of  the 
Pentateuch  as  a  whole,  the  ceremonial  element  rather  than  the 
minatory  is  the  prominent  feature.  Cf.  the  reform  of  Neh.  10 
which  was  based  on  the  Priestly  Code. 

An  additional  reason  confirming  the  conclusion  that  Deuter- 
onomy, and  not  the  whole  law,  is  referred  to  in  the  passage  in 
Kings,  is  the  fact  that  it  took  only  a  short  time  to  read  it.  It 
was  read  five  times  within  a  brief  period  (cf .  2  Ki.  22 : 8,  10  f., 
14  f.;  23:2).i 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  Deuteronomy,  —  that  is 
the  main  section  of  it,  —  is  now  conamonly  held  to  have  been 
some  time  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  prior  to  621  B.C., 
when  it  was  discovered  (2  Ki.  22).  The  following  are  some 
of  the  principal  facts  upon  which  this  conclusion  is  based :  — 

1  It  should  be  added  that  it  is  the  view  of  some  scholars  that  only 
selected  portions  of  Deut.  were  read  on  these  occasions.  According  to 
others  within  chaps.  5-26,  28  are  to  be  found  a  number  of  interpolated  or 
editorial  sections  of  subsequent  date,  i.e.  that  the  original  size  of  the  Code 
was  smaller  than  at  present.  Cf .  Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times,  50.  Chap- 
man, Introd.  Pent.  144  f.     Gray,  Introd.  32.     Robinson,  Deut.  etc.,  11  f. 


LITERATURE   OF  THE   DIVIDED   KINGDOM         125 

a.  Deuteronomy  depends  upon  the  Prophetic  (J  and  E) 
sources  of  the  Hexateuch,  both  for  its  historical  material  and 
its  legal  enactments  (of  which  the  forms  in  Deuteronomy 
are  in  many  cases  expansions  and  adaptations),  and  hence 
it  is  later  than  these. ^ 

b.  ''Pillars"  are  frequently  mentioned  in  connection  with 
worship  previous  to  the  seventh  century  B.C.  (cf.  Gen.  28  :  18 
22  (E) ;   31 :  45  (E) ;   35  :  20  (J  or  JE) ;   Josh.  24  :  26  (E) 
1  Sam.  6  :  14 ;    7  :  12 ;    2  Sam.  20  :  8 ;    1  Ki.  1 :  9 ;    7  :  21 
Hosea  3:4).     But  according  to  Deuteronomy  their  use  is 
forbidden  (cf.  16  :  22  ;   12  :  3).     The  natural  inference  is  that 
the  composition  of  Deuteronomy  was  later  than  the  time 
when  the  ''pillars"  were  recognized  as  legitimate  religious 
symbols,  i.e.  as  late  as  the  seventh  century. 

Isa.  19:19,  referring  to  a  "pillar"  as  a  legitimate  religious 
symbol,  would  also  be  another  strong  proof  if  its  Isaianic  author- 
ship was  certain,  but  this  is  questioned  now  by  many  scholars. 
Cf.,  however,  Whitehouse,  Isa.  in  loc. 

According  to  W.  R.  Smith  this  argument  from  the  '^ pillars" 
is  one  of  the  clearest  proofs  of  the  late  date  of  Deuteronomy .^ 

c.  From  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in 
Palestine  onward,  frequent  mention  is  made  of  local  sanc- 
tuaries and  altars  at  other  places  besides  where  the  Ark  was 
located,  —  such  evidently  being  regarded  as  legitimate  places 
of  worship.  Cf .  especially  Josh.  24  :  16,  266  ;  1  Sam.  6  :  14 ; 
7:9  f.,  17;  9:12-14;  10:3,5,8;  11:15;  14:  35;  2  Sam. 
15:12,  32;  1  Ki.  3:4;  18:30;  19:10  ("thrown  down 
thine  altar s'^),  etc. 

Reference  is  also  made  repeatedly  to  laymen  officiating  at 
sacrifices  without  offence.  Cf.  Judg.  6:  26;  13:19;  17:5; 
1  Sam.  13  :  8  ff. ;  14  :  35  ;  2  Sam.  6  :  14,  18 ;  8:18  and  20  :  26 
(R.  V.  marg.) ;  1  Ki.  9  :  25,  etc.  These  customs  were  in  agree- 
ment with  the  regulations  for  worship  in  the  "Book  of  the 
Covenant"  (cf.  Ex.  20:24-26),  according  to  which  sacri- 
fices could  be  offered  at  different  places  and  were  not  re- 
stricted to  a  priestly  class. 

1  For  the  dependence  of  the  historical  reviews,  Dent.  1 :  6-4 :  40,  etc., 
on  JE,  cf .  p.  40,  iii.  I.  For  the  relation  of  the  laws  of  Deut.  to  those  of  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant,  cf.  LOT,  73  ff.  Driver,  Deut.  iii  ff.  CHB,  Hex. 
i.  72  ff.,  75.     HDB,  i.  6006  (Ryle). 

2  Cf.  0.  T.  Jew.  Church^,  354. 


126      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

In  early  times  ''sacrifices  could  be  offered  by  a  man  of  any 
tribe,  as  by  a  house-father  for  his  household  or  by  a  king  for  his 
people."  ^ 

"Even  the  prophecy  of  the  eighth  century  only  called  for  their 
{i.e.  the  local  sanctuaries)  reform ;  it  did  not  contemplate  their 
extinction."  ^ 

According  to  Deuteronomy,  however,  all  sacrifice  was  to 
be  offered  at  one  central  sanctuary  (12:5  ff.;  16:1  ff. ; 
cf.  14:23,  etc.),  and  by  ''the  priests,  the  Levites"  alone 
(cf.  18  :  1  ff.).  These  facts  indicate  that  the  date  of  Deuter- 
onomy is  later  than  the  eighth  century. 

This  Deuteronomic  enactment  was  in  the  interest  of  purity  of 
worship,  in  view  of  the  idolatrous  practices  connected  with  the 
local  shrines.  It  was  the  formulation  of  a  growing  movement 
toward  centralization,  from  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  by  Solomon  (1  Ki.  6-8),  and  which  led 
Hezekiah,  probably  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  to  attempt  to 
suppress  the  "high  places"  (2  Ki.  18:4,  22;    cf.  21:3).3  4 

d.  Another  confirmation  of  the  seventh  century  date  is 
found  in  the  influence  of  the  eighth  century  prophetic  teach- 
ing, as  seen  in  the  lofty  motives  inculcated  in  the  hortatory 
portions,  in  the  exalted  character  of  God  depicted  and  the 
pure  monotheism  emphasized,  as  well  as  in  the  modification 
of  the  older  law  in  the  interests  of  justice  and  humanity ; 
e.g.  love  to  God  (6:5;    10  :  12 ;  13  :  3 ;  19  :  9,  etc) ;  God's 

1  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  18  (§  863).     Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  114. 

2  CHB,  Hex.  i.  86. 

3  The  centralization  of  the  worship  at  the  "Temple  at  Jerusalem  pre- 
supposes the  disappearance  of  the  Ten  Tribes  and  the  prophetic  teaching 
of  Isaiah  about  the  central  significance  and  inviolability  of  Mount  Zion." 
Cornill,  Introd.  61  f.  This  radical  change  was  also  in  the  interest  of 
monotheism.  The  worship  of  Jehovah  at  the  different  "  high  places"  "was 
nothing  more  than  the  old  Baal  (i.e.  of  the  Canaanitish  worship)  of  that 
shrine  under  the  name  of  Jehovah.  The  Jehovah  of  this  place  was  differ- 
ent from  the  Jehovah  of  that  place,  and  while  the  name  of  Jehovah  was 
used,  there  was  a  real  polytheism,  the  worship  not  of  one  Jehovah,  but 
of  many  Jehovahs.  The  motto  of  the  Deuteronomist,  contained  in  the 
prophetic  introduction  to  the  code,  may  be  said  to  be  this :  '  Hear,  O 
Israel!  Jehovah  our  god,  is  one  Jehovah  '  (6:  4).  To  bring  about  this 
unity  of  Jehovah  it  was  a  practical  necessity  to  confine  His  worship  to 
one  shrine."     Peters,  Relig.  Hebrs.  341  f. 

*  For  the  view  that  the  writer  or  writers  of  the  Deut.  Code  do  not  think 
of  the  law  of  the  central  sanctuary  as  appHcable  prior  to  the  estabhshment 
of  Solomon's  Temple,  cf.  A.  Harper,  Deut.  14  f.  HDD,  extra  vol.  717a 
(Kautzsch).     Cf.  also  the  view  of  R^  in  1  Ki.  3 :  2. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  127 

unity  (6:4;  10 :  17) ;  His  love  for  Israel  (7  :  8,  13  ;  10  :  15 ; 
23  :  56 ;  cf.  Hosea,  chap.  11) ;  justice  and  consideration  to- 
wards the  helpless  (15  :  7  ff. ;  19  :  16 ;  24  :  10  ff.,  17  ff.)  ; 
cf.  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah  and  Micah. 

Notice  in  addition  (a)  the  modification  of  the  law  of  release  of 
bondslaves  from  its  original  form  as  found  in  the  ''  Book  of  the 
Covenant"  (Ex.  21 :  2-11),  in  the  interest  of  humanity  in  the  Deut. 
Code  (cf.  15 :  12-17).  This  is  an  indication  of  prophetic  influ- 
ence. Cf.  also  (6)  the  law  of  the  Sabbatic  year  in  Deut.  15  :  1-11 
with  Ex.  23  :  10  f . 

In  reference  to  the  inculcating  of  justice  and  the  lofty  spirit  of 
humanity,  McCurdy  remarks  that  ''save  on  the  one  point  of 
intolerance  toward  the  enemies  of  Jehovah,  it  (i.e.  Deuteronomy) 
stands  in  these  aspects  almost  upon  the  New  Testament  level."  ^ 

e.  Another  significant  fact  is  that  in  the  writings  previous  s 
to  621  B.C.  (e.g.  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micah,  etc.),  there  is 
no  clear  trace  of  Deuteronomy  in  the  language ;  but  in  the 
writings  after  that  date  it  is  very  marked  (e.g.  Jeremiah, 
Joshua,  Judges  and  Kings).  From  this  the  logical  conclusion 
is  that  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  was  unknown  to  the  eighth 
century  writers,  and  that  probably  it  was  not  composed 
till  the  seventh  century. 

The  distinct  style  of  Deuteronomy,  as  indicating  difference  of 
authorship  from  the  other  legal  codes,  is  also  an  important  evi- 
dence.    For  the  Deuteronomic  phraseology,  cf.  p.  19  and  refs. 

According  to  Dillmann,  ''the  style  of  Deuteronomy  impHes  a 
long  development  of  the  art  of  pubHc  oratory,  and  is  not  of  a 
character  to  belong  to  the  first  age  of  Israelitish  literature."  ^   . 

While  there  is  unanimity  of  opinion  among  scholars  that  ,^a 
Deuteronomy  was  composed  in  the  seventh  century,  they  are  J^ 
not  agreed  as  to  which  part  of  it  its  date  should  most  reason- 
ably be  assigned.  A  probable  time  is  during  the  reaction  to 
heathenism  in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  (2  Ki.  21 : 1  ff.),  when  a 
prophetic  writer,  unable  openly  to  express  his  views,  owing 
to  the  persecution  of  the  adherents  of  Jehovah  by  the  king 
(cf .  vs.  16),  reformulated  the  earUer  code  of  laws  (  =  the  "Book 
of  the  Covenant,''  cf.  below,  p.  129)  to  meet  the  conditions 
of  a  more  developed  national  life.  Such  a  writer  (or  writers) 
may  reasonably  be  thought  of  as  divinely  led  to  interpret 

1  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  16  (§  859).  ^  cf.  citation  in  LOT,  88. 


128      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

those  laws  (many  of  which  had  doubtless  changed  with  the 
growth  of  the  nation),  in  order  to  safeguard  the  spiritual 
interests  of  the  people  against  the  various  evils  of  the  time, 
—  the  corrupt  worship  of  the  ''high  places  "  and  the  influx  of 
the  Babylonian  rehgious  cult  (cf.  2  Ki.  21 :  2-7 ;  23  :  4  ff.). 
This  reformulated  Code,  which  was  discovered  by  Hilkiah 
in  621  B.C.  (2  Ki.  22 :  5  ff .)  in  the  Temple,  may  have  been 
placed  there  after  it  had  been  written  for  safekeeping,  owing 
to  the  troublous  times,  where  it  was  overlooked  and  for- 
gotten; or  possibly  it  may  have  been  ''forcibly  suppressed 
or  silently  withdrawn"  by  its  author. 

The  date  of  Deut.  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  according  to  Budde 
is  "one  of  the  most  absolutely  assured  results  of  Biblical  criti- 
cism." Cf.  also  the  statement  of  Chejrae  that  "the  Israel," 
described  in  Deut.,  "  is  separated  from  the  Israel  of  the  Exodus  by 
a  complete  social  revolution."  ^ 

That  Deuteronomy  was  composed  under  prophetic  influence 
is  the  view  commonly  held.  McCurdy,  however,  thinks  it  was 
formulated  under  priestly  auspices.  This  explains  the  fact  of 
its  discovery  in  the  Temple.  He  also  maintains  that  the 
Hebrew  word  (X^)?),  translated  "found"  (2  Ki.  22:8),  does  not 
of  necessity  indicate  the  discovery  of  a  book  which  had  been  lost, 
but  merely  to  hght  upon  in  some  way.^ 

Other  dates  in  the  7th  century  for  Deut.  favored  by  scholars 
are  (a)  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  in  connection  with,  or 
as  the  outgrowth  after,  the  reforms  of  that  king,  which  many 
beheve  were  not  carried  out  till  the  repulse  of  Sennacherib  in 
701  B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  18 : 4  f.),  e.g.  G.  A.  Smith,  Andrew  Harper, 
Kittel ;  ^  or  (b)  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Josiah,  i.e.  639-621  b.c, 
e.g.  Budde,  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  Moore,  Ryle,  Cor- 
nill,  Robinson,  etc.^ 

One  of  the  objections  raised  against  dating  Deut.  in  the  reign 
of  Manasseh  is  the  absence  of  traces  in  the  book  of  the  persecu- 
tion to  which  the  adherents  of  Jehovah  were  subjected  at  that 
time  (cf.  2  Ki.  21 :  16). 

1  Budde,  Relig.  Isr.  171.     Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times,  71. 

2  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  9  f.  (§§  847  f.).  For  the  explanation  of  the 
motive  of  a  prophetic  writer  using  a  legal  code  to  express  his  teaching, 
cf.  Driver,  Deut.  Ix  f.  Cf.  Kittel' s  view  that  the  author,  like  Jeremiah, 
belonged  to  the  humbler  class  of  priests.     Scient.  Study  O.  T.  83. 

3  G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of  XII,  ii.  9  f.  Harper,  Deut.  29.  Kittel,  Scient. 
Study  O.  T.  83  f. 

4  Budde,  Relig.  Isr.  172.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  96  f.  EBi.  i.  1086  (Moore). 
Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  56  f.   Cornill,  Introd.  62,  539.    Robinson,  Deut.  etc.,  16. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED    KINGDOM  129 

On  the  other  hand,  that  this  Code  was  not  composed  by  Hilkiah 
is  shown  by  the  fact,  it  is  claimed,  that  the  priests  of  the  "  high 
places"  are  accorded  a  status  on  an  equaUty  with  those  of  the 
Temple  (Deut.  18:6  f.),  which,  it  is  known,  the  latter  did  not 
grant  to  them  after  the  Code  was  adopted  (2  Ki.  23  :  8  f.).^ 

In  coming  to  this  conclusion  as  to  the  date  of  Deuteronomy, 
the  reader  is  reminded  of  a  caution  expressed  in  connection 
with  the  discussion  of  the  date  of  the  documents  of  the 
Hexateuch  (cf.  pp.  27  ff.)-  The  laws  of  Deuteronomy  are 
based  upon  those  found  in  the  ancient  '^Book  of  the  Cov- 
enant" (except  Ex.  21  :  18-22:  15),-  incorporated  verbatim 
or  with  such  changes  as  would  naturally  be  expected  in  their 
adaptation  to  the  new  conditions  of  a  later  age.  Many 
laws  not  found  in  this  old  Code  give  evidence  of  antiquity 
(cf.  especially  the  section,  21 :  10-25 :  19),  or  are  the  expres- 
sion of  ancient  custom  in  Deuteronomic  language  (e.g. 
17:8-13;   19:16-21;  21:1-9). 

Since  Hebrew  law  was  to  such  an  extent  the  outgrowth  of 
Mosaic  principles,  here,  as  in  the  case  of  later  formulations 
(H  and  P),  in  accordance  with  the  common  Oriental,  drama- 
tic and  vivid  method  of  literary  presentation,  this  Code  was 
directly  attributed  to  Moses,  —  thus  identifying  'Hhe  stream 
with  the  source." 

Driver  well  says,  that  ''the  new  element  in  Deuteronomy  is 
not  the  laws  but  their  parenetic  setting"  .  .  .  "Deuteronomy 
may  be  described  as  the  prophetic  reformulation  and  adaptation 
to  new  needs  of  an  older  legislation.' '  ^  Cf.  also  what  was  stated 
in  reference  to  the  different  documents  of  the  historical  books  in 
this  volume  (pp.  6  f.). 

Budde  also  remarks  that  the  claim  of  Deuteronomy  "to  be  the 
lawbook  of  Moses  is  meant  in  all  seriousness  and  is  objectively 
justified.  For  it  had  adopted  all  that  had  appeared  up  to  that 
time  with  claim  to  Mosaic  authority."  ^ 

To  these  may  be  added  the  judgment  of  Kautzsch :  "In 
ancient  Israel  it  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  duty  to  give  as  Moses' 

1  Cf.  Kittel,  Scient.  Study  O.  T.  81  f .  See  further  McNeile,  Deut.  35 ; 
also  the  view  of  Robinson  on  2  Ki.  23 :  8  f .,  that  it  was  due  to  the  re- 
formers who  exceeded  "Deut.  in  the  rigorous  application  of  its  polemic 
against  the  high  places"  (his  Deut.  etc.,  11). 

2  Cf.,  however,  the  remarks  of  Moore,  EBi,  i.  1083. 

3  Driver,  Deut.  bd.     LOT,  91. 
<  Budde,  Relig.  Isr.  172. 


130     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

own  words  anything  that  had  to  be  promulgated  for  the  good  of 
the  people  in  continuation  of  his  work  and  in  the  sense  and  spirit 
of  his  laws  (for  instance  and  very  specially  the  legislation  of 
Deuteronomy).  The  idea  of  forgery,  however  natural  it  may  be 
to  us,  is  quite  out  of  question  here."  ^  ^ 

5.  Poetical  Writings^ 

A.  Pre-Exilic  (Divided  Kingdom)  Psalms  {?).  While  the 
different  divisions  and  collections  composing  our  present 
Psalter  date  from  post-exilic  times,  as  has  been  noticed 
previously  in  the  discussion  of  the  question  of  Davidic 
psalms  (p.  68;  cf.  also  pp.  224-234),  that  does  not  neces- 
sarily preclude  the  possibility  that  they  may  contain  some 
pre-exilic  psalms  or  fragments  of  psalms.  But  whether  any 
such  have  been  preserved,  and  if  so,  what  the  particular  psalms 
are,  —  these  are  questions  of  great  difficulty,  upon  which  the 
opinion  of  modern  scholars  is  much  divided.  For  conven- 
ience of  treatment  the  following  classification  may  be  made 
of  divergent  views  at  present  in  reference  to  this  subject :  — 

a.  The  view  that  pre-exilic  psalms  in  considerable  num- 
bers have  been  preserved. 

Cf.  the  Comms.  of  Ewald  and  DeHtzsch;  also  more  recently 
Kirkpatrick  in  Camb.  B.  on  Psal. ;  Robertson,  Poet,  and  Rehg., 

1  HDB,  extra  vol.  625a.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  65.  Cf.  also  the  excellent 
statement  by  Principal  Harper,  Deut.  30  f .  See  also  HDB,  ii.  368  (Woods). 
McFadyen,  Introd.  52  f.     Cornill,  Introd.  62  f.,  etc. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Deuter- 
onomy, pp.  19  f. ;  also  LOT,  69  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  48  ff.,  71  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  62  ff.,  190,  232.  McFadyen,  Introd.  46  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  46  ff. 
Gray,  Introd.  31  ff.,  42  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  57  ff.  HDB,  i.  596  ff.  (Ryle) ; 
ii.  367  f.  (Woods) ;  iii.  68  f.  (Driver).  EBi,  i.  1079  ff.  (Moore) ;  ii.  2051 
(Wellhausen) ;  iii.  2735  ff.  (Gray).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Deut.,  espec. 
Int.  Crit. (Driver);  Expos.  B.  (A.  Harper);  Cen.  B.  (Robinson).  CHB, 
Hex.  i.  pp.  70  ff.,  85  ff. ;  ii.  pp.  246  ff.,  256  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp. 
6  ff.,  17  ff.,  78  ff.,  126  ff.  (§§842  ff.,  861  ff.,  943  ff.,  1019  ff.).  McNeile, 
Deut.  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  135  ff.,  cf.  Ill  ff.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc., 
66  ff.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church^,  256  ff.,  318  ff.,  353  ff.,  363  ff., 
395  ff.  Kent,  Lawgivers,  28  ff.  Kent,  Isr.  Laws  and  Precedents,  31  ff. 
Kent,  Divided  Kingd.  163  f.,  167,  176  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  260  ff. 
Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  6  f.,  376  ff.,  437  ff.,  etc.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  pp. 
48  ff. ;  ii.  pp.  382  f.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  47  ff.  McFadyen,  Hists.  87  ff. 
Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  80  ff.  Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times,  48  ff.  Cheyne, 
Founders,  etc.,  267  ff.  Budde,  Rehg.  Isr.,  171  ff.  Bacon,  Ex.  247  ff. 
Kittel,  Scient.  Study  O.  T.  79  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  180  ff.  Fowler, 
Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  175  ff. 

'  The  collections  of  Proverbs  considered  in  a  previous  section  (pp.  116  ff.) 
are  also  in  poetry. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    DIVIDED   KINGDOM  131 

etc. ;  and  Briggs  in  the  Int.  Crit.  Comm.  on  Psal.,  who  assigns  27 
psalms  (including  Davidic)  to  pre-exiUc  times  (cf.  i.  pp.  Ivii  ff., 
Ixxxix  ff.). 

6.  The  view  that  their  number  is  limited. 

Cf.  Driver:  ''It  may  be  affirmed  .  .  .  with  tolerable  confi- 
dence that  very  few  of  the  Psalms  are  earlier  than  the  7th  century 
B.C."  (LOT,  384  f.,  cf.  380  f.).  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  143.  W.  R. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church^,  220.  Davison  in  HDB,  iv.  151  f .  and  his 
Psal.  18  ff.,  26  ( =  an  intermediate  position  between  Kirkpatrick 
and  Driver).     McFadyen,  Psal.  22  ff. ;   his  Introd.  248  f.,  etc. 

c.  The  view  that  there  may  be  pre-exiUc  psahns,  though 
it  is  impossible  to  identify  them. 

Here  may  be  noted  the  more  recent  view  of  Kautzsch:  ''It 
may  be  that  in  the  Psalms  there  still  survive  scattered  reUcs  of 
pre-exihc  reHgious  poetry,  etc."  (HDB,  extra  vol.  723  b).  Cf .  G.  A. 
Smith,  Modem  Crit.,  etc.,  87.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  100  ff.  Moore, 
LOT,  225  f.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  42,  48.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
202  f.,  etc.     Cf.  also  Gray,  Introd.  134  ff.,  141. 

d.  The  view  that  the  existence  of  pre-exihc  psalms  is  very 
doubtful  if  not  improbable. 

Such  is  the  conclusion  of  Wellhausen:  "It  is  not  a  question 
whether  there  be  any  post-exilic  Psalms,  but  rather  whether  the 
Psalms  contain  any  poems  written  before  the  Exile."  Cf.  his 
Psalms  (SBOT),  163.  See  also  Cheyne  in  EBi,  iii.  3938  ff.,  3961 ; 
his  Jew.  Rehg.  Life,  124 ;  his  Introd.  Isa.  171 ;  his  Founders,  etc., 
334  f.;  his  Aids,  etc.,  130  f.  Duhm  in  EBi,  iii.  3801.  Cor- 
nill,  Introd.  398  f . 

On  account  of  this  wide  range  of  opinion  on  this  subject 
no  attempt  is  made  in  this  volume  to  determine  what  psalms 
are  with  certainty,  more  or  less,  to  be  assigned  to  this  period. 
Those,  however,  which  Kirkpatrick  and  Briggs  have  dated 
from  different  parts  of  this  period  are  recorded  as  expressing 
the  more  conservative  opinion  of  modern  scholars.  Occa- 
sional references  to  other  psalms  regarded  as  pre-exilic  by 
other  authorities  are  also  given.^ 

B.  ''  The  Blessing  of  Moses,''  Deuteronomy  33.  This  poem 
written  in  the  name  of  Moses  is  evidently  later  than  his  day, 

1  Cf.  for  summaries  of  the  position  of  different  scholars  on  the  dating 
of  the  psalms,  EBi,  iii.  3935  ff.  Robertson,  Poet,  and  Relig.,  etc.,  chap.  2. 
LOT,  388.     Kirkpatrick,  Psal.  xxxvii  f.     Briggs,  Psal.  i.  p.  Ivii. 


132      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

as  can  be  seen  from  (a)  the  past  tenses  in  vss.  4  f. ;  and 
(h)  the  form  ^'he  said/^  which  introduces  each  oracle  in 
vss.  7-25. 

The  more  definite  date  to  which  it  is  to  be  assigned  depends 
upon  the  period  of  Israel's  history,  which  corresponds  to  the 
condition  of  the  different  tribes  described  in  the  poem,  e.g. 
(a)  Reuben's  feebleness  (vs.  6) ;  (b)  Judah's  distress  (vs.  7) ; 
(c)  Levi's  priestly  prominence  (vss.  8-11) ;  (d)  the  evident 
prosperity  of  the  Northern  tribes  (vss.  13  ff.) ;  (e)  the  fact 
that  the  tribe  of  Simeon  is  not  mentioned,  from  which  it  is 
inferred  that  it  had  been  already  absorbed  in  Judah,  when 
the  poem  was  composed;  (/)  the  existence  of  the  Temple 
implied  in  Benjamin's  territory  (cf.  vs.  12,  '^And  he,  i.e, 
Jehovah,  dwelleth  between  the  shoulders"  =  the  moun- 
tains) :  ^  and  (g)  the  conquest  of  Palestine,  which  is  looked 
upon  as  past  (vss.  27  f.).  In  view  of  these  facts  the  poem  is 
assigned  by  most  recent  scholars  to  the  prosperous  reign  of 
Jeroboam  II;  possibly  c.  780  or  770  B.C.  (cf.  Kent  =  c. 
750  B.C.),  which  harmonizes  well  with  the  ^^ general  atmos- 
phere of  contentment  and  security  in  which  the  poem  moves." 

Some  date  the  poem  earlier  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  I,  937- 
915  B.C.,  e.g.  Driver  (cf.  his  Deut.),  Dillmann,  etc.  A  few  place 
it  still  earlier  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  c.  1190?-c.  1040  B.C., 
e.g.  Wade.  Still  others  assign  a  much  later  date  to  it,  e.g.  exilic 
or  later,  cf.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  163  f. 

The  origin  of  the  poem  in  the  Northern  Kingdom  is  in- 
dicated by  the  enthusiasm  manifested  for  it  (vss.  13  ff.),  and 
the  prayer  (7c)  that  Judah  may  be  brought  back  into 
pohtical  unity  with  the  other  tribes.  The  poem  is  supposed 
to  have  been  incorporated  in  E  or  JE,  or  possibly  in  JED. 

Some  scholars  hold  that  vss.  2-5  and  26-29  were  added  at  a 
later  (post-exilic?)  date.^ 

1  Possibly  the  allusion  in  vs.  12  is  to  the  sanctuary  at  Bethel  (of.  Am. 
7:13). 

2  Cf.  further  on  the  Blessing  of  Moses,  LOT,  97  f.  Bennett,  Introd. 
75.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  10.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  40  f.,  183.  McFadyen, 
Introd.  50  f.  Cornill,  Introd.  125  f.  Comms.  on  Deut.  in  loc.  (e.g. 
Dnver,  A.  Harper,  Robinson).  HDB,  iv.  116  (Budde).  EBi,  i.  1090  f. 
(Moore).  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  73  f.  (§  935).  CHB,  Hex.  i.  163  f, 
Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  61  ff.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  41  f.  Schmidt,  Poets^ 
344  flf.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  93  f.,  215.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  209  f., 
499.  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.  49,  117  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  131  f. 
Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  19  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  130  f. 


VII.  B.  The  History  and  Literature  of  the  Period  of  the 
Divided  Kingdom,  Chronologically  Outlined  (937- 
586  B.C.)  =  1  Ki.  12-2  Ki.  25:21;  2  Chr.  10:1-36:21. 
Prophecies  of  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah  1-39  (mostly),  Micah, 
Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk  and  Ezekiel  (in 
part).  The  Deuteronomic  Code.  Collections  of  Proverbs 
( ?) .     Poems  (including  psalms  ?) } 


SECTION  I,  937-913  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Jvdah  and  Israel,  937-913  b.c. 


kingdom    of   ISRAEL 

Jeroboam  I,  937-915  b.c. 
1  Ki.  12 : 1  ff.     Petition   of  Is- 
raehtes,  etc. 

12  :  20,  25-33.  Calf  wor- 
ship adopted. 

13.  Incidents  of  the  two 
prophets. 

14  : 1-20.  Incident  of  the 
sickness  of  the  king's 
son ;  the  king's  death, 
etc. 


kingdom  of  judah 
Rehoboam,  937-920  b.c. 

1  Ki.  12  :  1-24.     Accession ;  re- 
volt of  tribes,  etc.  (cf.  2  Chr. 
10:1-11:4). 

2  Chr.  11 :  5-23.  Fortifications; 
migration  of  Levites,  etc. 

1  Ki.  14:21-28.  His  sinful 
reign;  invasion  by  Shishak 
(cf.  2  Chr.  12  :  2a,  9a*,  96-11, 
13),  c.  932  B.C. 

2  Chr.  12  : 1,  26-9a*,  12,  14-15a. 

The  king's  apostasy;    respite 
granted,  etc. 
1    Ki.    14:29-31.     The    king's 
deeds  and   death  (cf.  2  Chr. 
12:156-16). 

Abijam   (Abijah),  920-917  B.C. 

1  Ki.  14:316;  15:1-8.  His 
character  and  wars  (cf.  2 
Chr.  13:1-2:   14:1a). 

2  Chr.  13:3-22.  His  conflict 
with  Jeroboam,  etc. 

1  For  other  literary  productions  assigned  to  this  period  by  different 
scholars,  cf.  pp.  134,  ii ;  135  f .,  ii ;  138,  ii ;  140,  ii ;  142,  ii.  e. ;  146  f.,  ii.  d. ; 
151  f.,  iv.  e. ;  154,  ii.  6. ;  161,  ii.  d. ;  164  ff.,  ii.  b.  i.-m. 

133 


Nadab,  915-913  B.C. 
1  Ki.  14  :  196  +  15  :  25-31.     His 
character  and  assassination. 


134      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

ii.  Literature  which  may  possibly  have  originated  in  Jeroboam's 
reign. 

The  Original  History  of  the  Judges,  at  the  basis  of  Judges  2  : 
6-chap.  16  +  17  f. ;  19,  may  have  been  compiled  in  Jeroboam's 
reign.^ 

iii.   Composition  of  the  historical  material. 

a.  In  the  historical  sections  of  Kings,  based  on  the  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  the  material  in  this  vol.  designated 
as  Deuteronomic  (R^,  D^)  includes  (especially  from  1  Ki.  14 :  19 
onwards)  the  characteristic  opening  and  closing  formulae  of  each 
reign  (even  though  they  contain  historical  notices,  as  in  1  Ki.  14 : 
30 ;  15  :  12  f.  etc.),  together  with  the  marked  editorial  comments 
and  judgments. 

b.  The  essential  material  pecuHar  to  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  is 
printed  in  italics  in  the  outline  given  above  and  on  succeeding 
pages.  Words,  phrases  and  even  parts  of  vss.  (e.g.  2  C.  12 :  13a) 
pecuhar  to  Ch.  which  do  not  materially  affect  the  narrative  are 
not  indicated  in  general.  Thus,  ''cf.  2  Chr.  10 :  1-11 :  4"  means 
that  this  section  is  practically  parallel  to  that  of  Ki.  with  which 
it  is  connected  in  the  BibUcal  outline.  Note,  however,  also  the 
Ch.  vss.  in  these  sections  indicated  in  the  notes  on  the  following 
pages,  under  ''Composition  of  the  historical  material." 

c.  1  Ki.  12  is  pre-Deut.  (vss.  21-24  =  probably  late).^ 

d.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many  scholars  that  the  age  of  the  present 
form  of  the  story  in  1  Ki.  13  is  long  subsequent  to  the  time  of  the 
events  described.  It  certainly  is  later  than  the  foundation  of 
Samaria  (cf.  vs.  32  with  16 :  24).  From  the  fact  that  the  names 
of  the  prophets  are  not  remembered,  it  is  inferred  that  it  was 
written  long  afterwards,  —  possibly  in  the  time  of  Josiah  or  later 
{i.e.  post-exilic),  on  the  basis  that  in  vs.  32  Samaria  =  the  prov- 
ince of  that  name.     (According  to  some  vss.  336-34  =  R°.) 

e.  1  Ki.  14  and  15 :  1-8,  25-31  are  Deut.  in  form,  incorporating 
earher,  pre-Deut.  material.  Cf.  R^  (D^)  =  14 : 7-16,  18-24, 
29-31;  15:1-8,  25  f.,  296 ("according,  etc.")-31.  See  further 
on  the  section  1  Ki.  14  :  19-16  :  34,  p.  136,  iii.  a. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  For  the  date  937  B.C.,  see  Ap.  C,  p.  344,  a. 

h.  The  years  assigned  in  the  chronological  outline  for  the  dif- 

1  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  21  ff.,  178,  234.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  57 
(§  917).    Also  p.  46  of  this  vol. 

2  1  Ki.  12  originated  in  the  Northern  Kingdom,  according  to  some 
authorities  (cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  213).  Note,  however,  the  view  that  it 
is  characterized  by  "noteworthy  impartiality"  (Moore,  LOT,  106). 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      135 

ferent  kings  are  such  as  seem  on  the  whole  most  probable,  on  the 
basis  of  Biblical  chronology  adjusted  to  the  dates  fixed  by  the 
Assyrian  records.  The  conclusion,  however,  of  Professor  Curtis 
needs  to  be  kept  in  mind,  viz.  ''that  only  a  few  dates  in  Israel's 
history  can  be  fixed  with  absolute  certainty.  The  time  of  most 
events  can  only  be  given  definitely  within  a  space  of  two  or  three 
years."     (HDB.  i.  402  f.) 

c.  The  invasion  of  Judah  by  Shishak  (Shoshenk  or  Sheshonk) 
=  c.  950-c.  930  B.C.  (see  p.  83,  iv./.),  of  which  there  is  an  inscrip- 
tion on  a  wall  of  the  temple  of  Amen  at  Kamak,  occurred  in  the 
fifth  year  of  Rehoboam's  reign  (1  Ki.  14  :  25).  According  to  the 
chronology  adopted  above  the  date  would  be  932  b.c. 


SECTION  II,  917-875  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel,  917-875  b.c. 

KINGDOM   OF   JUDAH  KINGDOM    OF   ISRAEL 

Asa,  917-876  b.c  .  Baasha,  913-889  b.c. 

1  Ki.  15:  Sh,  9-15.  His  reli-  1  Ki.  15 :  27  ff.,  32-16  :  7.  Ac- 
gious  zeal  (cf .  2  Chr.  14  :  1-  cession  ;  warfare  ;  character  ; 
5 ;   15  :  16-19).  the  prophet  Jehu. 

2  Chr.  14  :  6-15  :  15.     Defeat  of  Elah,  889-887  B.C. 

the  invading  Ethiopian  army,  i  Ki.  16 :  66,  8-14.     Accession 
6^c.  and  assassination. 

1  Ki.    15:16-22    (cf.   vs.   32).  ^.^„.  ggy  ^  ^ 
War^mth  Baasha   (cf.  2  Chr.  ^    ^^.     i6:9'ff.,     15-20.     His 

2  Chr.    16:7-11.     Rebuked   by        brief  reign. 

the  prophet.  Omri,  887-875  B.C. 

1  Ki.   15  :  23-24.     His  sickness  1  Ki.  16  :  15  ff.,  21-28.     Victory 

and  death  (cf .  2  Chr.  16  :  12-  over  rivals ;    deeds  and  char- 

14;   17:  la).  acter. 

ii.  Literature  which  possibly  originated  in  Judah-Israel,  c.  917- 
c.  875  B.C. 

a.  According  to  some  scholars,  in  the  10th  or  9th  century  (pos- 
sibly in  the  reigns  of  Baasha  of  Israel  and  Asa  of  Judah)  were 
compiled :  — 

(a)  The  Older  Saul  Stories  (in  the  kingdom  of  Israel)  = 
1  Sam.  9  : 1-10  :  16 ;  11 : 1-11,  15 ;  13  (largely) ;  14  : 1-46.  See 
p.  48  ;  cf .  74,  iii.  a. 

(5)  The  Davidic  Stories  (in  the  kingdom  of  Judah),  found  in 
1  Sam.  16  :  14-23 ;   18  :  6*,  7,  86-11,  20,  21a,  22-26a,  27 ;   20  :  1-3, 


136     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

11,  18-39;   23:1-5,  7-13,  19-24:12,  14-22;   25;   27-31    (in  the 

main).^ 

b.  According  to  Briggs  the  following  7  psalms  in  their  original 
form  date  from  the  early  Hebrew  monarchy,  prior  to  Jehosha- 
phat's  reign  (876  ff.  B.C.),  viz.  7 ;  13;  18;  23;  24:7-10;  60:6- 
10a;  110.  Of  these  Ps.  18  in  its  original  form  (cf.  p.  71,  last 
paragraph)  and  possibly  7  and  60 :  6-lOa  =  Davidic.^ 

iii.    Composition  of  the  historical  material. 

a.  In  the  section  1  Ki.  14 :  19-16 :  34  the  history  is  largely  a 
collection  of  short  notices  in  Deuteronomic  setting,  i.e.  an  epitome 
of  history  derived  probably  from  'Hhe  Book  of  the  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Israel"  and  ''the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah,"  plus  the  Deut.  additions.  In  the  material 
covering  the  reigns  outlined  above  (15  :  9  ff.),  R^  (D^)  =  15  :  9-15, 
23  f.,  32-34;  16 :  1-8,  12-15,  19  f.,  23,  25-33.  For  the  sections 
14 :  1-15 :  8,  25-31,  cf.  p.  134,  iii.  e. 

b.  In  2  Chr.  14  :  1-5  and  15  :  16-19,  Ch.  =  14  :  16,  4  f . ;  15  :  19. 
2  Chr.  16 :  12-14  =  an  expanded  form  of  1  Ki.  15 :  236. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  Zerah  (2  Chr.  14 :  9)  has  been  identified  by  a  number  of 
scholars  with  either  Osorkon  I  or  II  of  Egypt  =  respectively 
924-895;  874-853  b.c.  (Breasted's  dates).  According  to  Baton, 
Zerah  was  a  south  Arabian  monarch,  basing  his  view  on  the  fact 
that  there  was  ''an  Arabian  Cush  (E.  V.  Ethiopia)  as  well  as  a 
Nubian."  ^ 

6.  By  comparison  of  1  Ki.  16  :  15  with  vss.  21  ff.,  it  will  be  seen 
that  Omri  did  not  become  king  actually  until  after  four  years  of 
conflict  with  Tibni. 

1  Cf.  Kautzseh,  LOT,  27  f.,  178  f.,  etc.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  33  S. 
The  outline  given  above  under  (a)  and  (b)  is  practically  the  analysis  of 
Kautzseh.  For  a  somewhat  different  classification  and  analysis  of  these 
sections,  adopted  in  this  vol.,  cf.  p.  74,  iii.  a. 

2  Briggs'  Psal.,  i.  pp.  Lxxxix  ff. 

3  Cf.  Paton,  Hist.  Syria,  etc.,  196  f. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED    KINGDOM      137 


SECTION  III,  876-842  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel,  876-842  b.c. 


KINGDOM   OF  JUDAH 

Jehoshaphat,  876-851  b.c. 

2  Chr.  17.  Cause  of  his  success; 
prosperity  of  his  kingdom,  etc. 

1  Ki.  22 :  1  ff.  Cooperates 
with  Ahab,  etc. 

2  Chr.  19.  Rebuked  by  the 
prophet,  etc. 

20  :  1-30.  Defeat  of 
invading  Ammonites  and  Mo- 
abites,  etc. 

1  Ki.  15:246;  22:41-50. 
Summary  of  his  reign  (cf. 
2  Chr.  20:31-37;   21:1). 

2  Ki.  3.  His  cooperation  with 
Israel.  (Cf.  under  Jehoram 
of  Isr.) 

Jehoram   (Joram),   851-842   b.c. 

1  Ki.  22  :  506 ;  2  Ki.  8  :  16.  His 
accession  (cf.  2  Chr.  21  :  16). 

2  Chr.  21 :  2-4.  Brothers  put  to 
death. 

2  Ki.  8:17-22.  Character; 
revolt  of  Edom,  etc.  (cf. 
2  Chr.  21 :  5,  20a,  6-10). 

2  Chr.  21 :  11-17.  His  idolatry 
rebuked,  etc. 

2  Ki.  8 :  23-24.  His  death. 
Cf .  2  Chr.  21 :  18-19, 206.  His 
disease,  etc. 

Ahaziah,  843-842  B.C. 

2  Ki.  8  :  246,  25-29 ;  cf .  9  :  29. 
His  accession ;  character ;  co- 
operates with  Jehoram  of 
Isr.  etc.  (cf.  2  Chr.  22 :  1-6). 
9:  216  ff.,  27-29.  Slain 
by  Jehu  (cf.  2  Chr.  22:7-9). 


KINGDOM   OF   ISRAEL 

Ahab,  875-853  b.c. 

1  Ki.  16  :  286,  29-34.     Introduc- 
tion of  Baal  worship,  etc. 

17.  Elijah  at  Zarephath. 

18.  Elijah  at  Mount  Car- 
mel,  etc. 

19.  EHjah  at  Mount  Ho- 
reb,  etc. 

20.  Conflict  between  Ahab 
and  Ben-hadad,  c.  857- 
856  B.C. 

21.  Naboth's  vineyard. 
22:1-40.  Alliance  of  Ahab 
and   Jehoshaphat  against 

Syria,   etc.   (cf.   2  Chr. 
18:1-34). 
Ahaziah,  853-851  b.c. 

1  Ki.   22:406,    51-53.     Acces- 
sion;  character. 

2  Ki.   1.     Fate  of  messengers, 
etc. ;   death. 

Jehoram    (Joram),   851-842  b.c. 
2  Ki.  1  :  176.       His     accession  ; 
cf.  3:1-3. 

2.  Ascension  of  Elijah, 
etc. 

3.  Invasion  of  Moab  by 
Israel,  etc. 

4.  Ehsha  and  the  Shu- 
nammite,  etc. 

5.  Naaman  healed,  etc. 
6 :  1-23.       Syrian      army 

thwarted,  etc. 

6  :  24-7  :  20.  Siege  of  Sa- 
maria, etc. 

8 :  1-15.  Restoration  of 
Shunammite's  land,  etc. 

9  :  1-26,  30-37.  Revolt 
of  Jehu,  etc. 


138     AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

ii.   Literature  which  possibly  originated  in  Jehoshaphafs  reign. 
Ps.  83  is  assigned  to  this  reign  by  Kirkpatrick.^ 
ill.   Composition  of  the  historical  material. 

a.  1  Ki.  16  :  29-34  is  Deuteronomic  on  the  basis  of  early  mate- 
rial.    For  the  Deut.  (R°)  vss.  see  analysis,  p.  136,  iii.  a. 

b.  In  2  Chr.  17 : 1-22 :  9,  in  addition  to  the  Ch.  sections  indi- 
cated in  the  outline  above,  note  the  following  Ch.  vss.  18 :  1  f. 
+  316  (largely) ;  20  :  336,  34,  35a*,  37*  ;  21 :  106  ;  22  :  96. 

c.  Prophetic  tales  (Pr.  or  El.)  =  1  Ki.  17 ;  18;  19;  21  (largely); 
2  Ki.  2;  4;  5;  6:1-23;  8:1-15;  together  with  13:14-21. 
Cf .  also  n.  g  below. 

d.  Prophetic  historical  source  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  (E  ?)  = 
1  Ki.  20 ;  22  :  1-38  :  2  Ki.  3 ;  6  :  24-7  :  20 ;  9  (largely) ;  together 
with  10  (largely).     Cf  also  n.  g  below. 

e.  1  Ki.  22 :  41-53  is  an  epitome  of  history  incorporated  by 
the  Deut.  compiler  (HP).     R^  =  vss.  41-45,  50-53. 

/.  2  Ki.  8 :  16-29  is  also  an  historical  epitome  in  Deut.  setting. 
R^  =  vss.  16-19,  23-27  (28  f.). 

g.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  editorial 
(redactional)  verses  of  different  dates  in  the  Prophetic  tales  and 
Prophetic  history.  1  Ki.  18 :  31-32a  (R^?);  19:96-lla;  (20: 
13  f.,  22,  28),  35-43;  21:206-22,  24-26  (R^) ;  22:38(?),  39  f. 
(R^) ;  2  Ki.  3  : 1-3  (R^) ;  9  :  7-lOa,  29  (R°) ;  10 :  28-31.  For 
variant  views  regarding  editorial  vss.  in  these  sources,  cf .  Introds., 
Comms.,  etc. 

h.  In  2  K.  1,  vs.  1  was  derived  from  the  historical  annals  and 
vs.  18  =  Deuteronomic  (R^).  In  reference  to  the  main  portion 
of  the  chapter,  vss.  2-17,  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its 
source.  According  to  some  scholars,  vss.  2-4,  17a  =  Prophetic 
tales  (Pr.,  EL),  and  vss.  5-16  =  from  the  time  of  the  earlier  Deut. 
compiler  (R^).  By  others  the  whole  section  vss.  2-17  =  late, 
post-exilic  addition  on  the  basis  of  an  earlier  narrative.  The 
Hebrew  form  for  Elijah  differs  here  from  the  usual  one. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  battle  of  Karkar,  854  B.C.,  in  which,  according  to  the 
annals  of  Shalmaneser  III  of  Assyria,  he  defeated  a  confederacy 

1  "  The  book  of  the  law  of  Jehovah,"  referred  to  in  2  Chr.  17 :  7-9,  is 
thought  by  some  scholars  possibly  to  be  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  (Ex. 
20 :  22-23 :  19  (33),  which  may  have  been  compiled  at  this  time  or  earlier 
in  the  reign  of  Ahab.  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  29  ff.,  180,  See  also  Sanders, 
Hist.  Hebrs.  p.  135. 

For  the  period  to  which  this  Code  is  assigned  in  this  vol.,  cf.  pp.  37  f., 
iv.  6.,  also  54,  iv.  a.;  84,  v.  g. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      139 

of  which  Ahab  and  the  king  of  Damascus  were  members,  is  one 
of  the  important  dates  to  check  the  Biblical  chronology.  It  is 
generally  thought  that  this  battle  occurred  within  the  three 
years  of  peace,  between  Syria  and  Israel,  mentioned  in  1  Ki.  22  :  1. 
Accordingly  the  siege  of  Samaria  (1  Ki.  20 :  1  ff.)  and  the  defeat 
of  the  Syrians  at  Aphek  the  following  year  (vss.  22  ff.,  26  ff.) 
may  be  assigned  approximately  c.  857-856  b.c.     See  Ap.  C,  p.  345. 

b.  For  the  Moabite  stone  as  related  to  the  chronology  of  the 
reigns  of  Omri  and  Ahab,  cf.  Ap.  C,  p.  345. 

c.  For  the  chronological  difficulties  connected  with  the  reigns 
of  Ahaziah  and  Jehoram  of  Israel,  cf.  Ap.  C,  p.  345. 


SECTION  IV,  842-781  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel,  842-781  b.c. 


KINGDOM   OF   JUDAH 

Athaliah,  842-836  b.c. 

2  Ki.  11 :  1-20.     Her  usurpation 
and   overthrow     (cf.    2   Chr. 
22:10-23:21). 
Jehoash  (Joash),  836-796  B.C. 

2  Ki.  11:21-12:16.  His  char- 
acter; repairing  the  Temple 
(cf.  2  Chr.  24:l-14a). 

2  Chr.  24 :  146-22.  His  apos- 
tasy, etc. 

2    Ki.    12:17-21.     Murder    of 
the  king,  etc.  (cf .  2  Chr.  24 : 
23-27). 
Amaziah,  796-782  (?)  b.c 

2  Ki.  12  :  216  ;  14  :  1-6.  Slays 
his  father's  murderers  (cf. 
2  Chr.  25:1-4). 

2  Chr.  25  :  5-10,  13.  Dismisses 
Israelitish  mercenaries. 

2  Ki.  14 : 7.  Victory  over 
Edom  (cf.  2Chr.  25:11  f.). 

2  Chr.  25  :  14-16.  His  apostasy, 
etc. 

2  Ki.'  14  :  8-14,  17-20.  Defeat 
by  Israel ;  his  murder  (cf . 
2  Chr.  25:17-28). 


KINGDOM   OF   ISRAEL 

Jehu,  842-814  b.c. 
2  Ki.  9.     Steps  leading  to  his 
accession,  etc. 
10.     Massacre  of  Ahab's 
family   and   Baal   wor- 
shippers, etc. 


Jehoahaz,  814-797  b.c. 
2    Ki.    10:356;        13:1-9,22. 
Character;   Syrian  invasions. 


Jehoash  (Joash),  797-781  B.C. 
2    Ki.    13:96,     10-21,    23-25. 
His   character ;    tales 
of  Elisha,  etc. 

14  :  8  ff.  Victory  over 
Amaziah,  etc.  (cf. 
under  Amaziah  of 
Judah). 

14 :  15  f.  His  charac- 
ter and  death. 


140     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

ii.   Literature  which  may  have  originated  c.  800  B.C. 
''  The  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (cf.  1  Ki.  11 :  41)  according 
to  some  authorities.^ 

iii.   Composition  of  the  historical  material, 

a.  For  the  sources  of  2  Ki.  9,  10,  and  13  :  14-21,  cf.  138,  iii.  c.  d. 

h.  2  Ki.  10 :  28-31,  32-12 :  21 ;  13  : 1-13,  22-25 ;  14  : 1-20  are 
Deut.  (R^)  in  form,  compiled  from  the  historical  annals  of  the 
two  Kingdoms.  R^  =  10  :  28-31,  34-36 ;  11 :  21-12  :  3,  19-21 ; 
13  : 1-2,  4-6,  8-13,  23 ;  14  : 1-6,  15-18.  Some  of  these  vss.  may 
possibly  be  even  later.     Cf.  Skinner,  Ki.  in  loc. 

Note  that,  according  to  some  scholars,  11 :  1-12 :  16  (or  simply 
12 : 4-16)  was  derived  from  the  Temple  records,  with  R^  addi- 
tions ;  cf .  above. 

c.  In  2  Chr.  22 :  10-25 :  28  in  addition  to  the  Ch.  material  in- 
dicated in  the  above  outHne  of  BibUcal  records,  cf.  Ch.  changes 
espec.  in  23 : 2,  4,  6-8 ;  in  24 :  6,  9,  14a,  23-27  (largely) ;  25 : 
11a,  12,  205,  27a. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  According  to  Assyrian  records  Jehu  paid  tribute  to  Shal- 
maneser  III  in  842  B.C.  This  is  generally  beheved  to  have  been 
given  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  in  connection  with  an  Assyrian 
campaign  against  Hazael  of  Damascus  in  that  year;  hence  the 
date  842  B.C.  for  the  accession  of  AthaHah  and  Jehu.  Cf.  further 
Ap.  C,  p.  344,  a. 

h.  It  is  thought  by  several  scholars  that  the  events  described 
in  2  Ki.  6 :  24-7 :  20  belong  to  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz  for  the  fol- 
lomng  reasons :  (a)  that  it  is  not  probable  that  Syria,  which 
had  been  invaded  by  Assyria  in  850,  849  and  846  B.C.,  was  in  a 
position  to  attack  Israel  between  849-846  B.C.  ( =  the  time  in 
the  reign  of  Jehoram  to  which  it  is  commonly  assigned),  especially 
as  Israel  and  Judah  were  at  that  time  allied.  (6)  The  placing 
of  this  section  in  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz  harmonizes  with  the  con- 
dition of  affairs  at  this  later  date,  when  Israel  was  ground  down 
and  ravaged  by  Syrian  armies  (cf .  2  Ki.  13  :  3,  22 ;  Am.  1 :  3,  etc.), 
and  (c)  the  description  of  the  king  as  the  ''son  of  a  murderer'^ 
(2  Ki.  6  :  32)  is  especially  appropriate  to  Jehoahaz  the  son  of  Jehu. 
In  case  of  this  later  setting  being  adopted,  the  Ben-hadad  men- 
tioned in  the  section  is  Ben-hadad  III. 

c.  It  may  be  noted  in  explanation  of  the  varied  fortunes  of 
Israel  under  Jehu,  Jehoahaz,  Joash  and  Jeroboam  II  (842-c. 
740  B.C.),  that  after  839  b.c.  for  many  years  Assyria  did  not  send 
any  army  against  Damascus  (Syria).  This  left  that  power 
free  to  ravage  Israel  (2  Ki.  10 :  32  f . ;    13  :  3,  22).     By  the  cam- 

1  Cf.  further  p.  59. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      141 

paigns  of  Ramman  (Adad)-nirari  IV  of  Assyria  in  803  and  797  B.C. 
against  Damascus  the  Syrian  power  was  greatly  crippled,  thus 
enabling  Israel  to  regain  its  lost  territory  (2  Ki.  13:5,  23,  25). 
Some  refer  the  ''saviour"  (2  Ki.  13:5)  to  the  Assyrian  king. 
As  the  Assyrian  kings  for  the  next  50  years,  with  the  exception  of 
773  B.C.,  did  not  meddle  with  Damascus,  this  gave  Israel  its 
opportunity  of  expansion  under  Joash  and  Jeroboam  II  (2  Ki. 
13:23ff.;   14:25ff.).i 

d.  For  chronological  difficulties  connected  with  Amaziah's 
reign,  and  for  explanation  of  the  dating  adopted  above,  see  Ap.  C, 
pp.  346  f.  (a). 

SECTION  V,  c.  780-740  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel,  c.  780-740  B.C. 

KINGDOM    OF   JUDAH  KINGDOM    OF   ISRAEL 

Uzziah  (Azariah),  782  (?)-  Jeroboam  II,  781-c.  740  B.C. 

c  740  B  c 
2  Ki.  14 :  21  f .     His  accession,     2  Ki.  14 :  166,  23-29.     His  do- 
etc.  (cf.  2  Chr.  26  :  1  f.).  minion  and  wars. 

15  : 1-4.     His  reign  and 
character  (cf.  2  Chr.  26  :  3-5). 
2  Chr.  26  :  6-15.     His  wars,  etc. 
2     Ki.     15:5-7.     Regency    of 

Jotham,  etc. 
Cf .  2  Chr.  26 :  16-23.     Sin  and 
punishment. 

ii.  Literary  productions  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  (Israel),  c.  780- 
740  B.C. 

a.  (Isaiah  15  : 1-16  :  12.   Moab's  distress  and  hopeless  outlook.) 

b.  Deut.  33.  ''Blessing  of  Moses"  =  characterization  of  the 
different  tribes,  c.  780-770  b.c.^ 

c.  Prophetic  messages  of  Amos,  c.  760-750  b.c. 

Chaps.  1-2.  Arraignment  of  surrounding  nations ;  also  Judah 
and  Israel. 

3-6.     Gross  social  evils  of  the  nation  depicted,  etc. 

7-9.  Visions  in  which  the  nation's  doom  is  empha- 
sized, etc. 

*  "M.  Pognon,  the  French  consul  in  Mesopotamia,  thinks,  however, 
that  the  cause  of  the  weakness  of  Damascus  was  another  Aramean  king- 
dom of  Hazrak,  which  flourished  for  about  fifty  years."  Sanders,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  143. 

2  Note  the  fact  that  some  scholars  hold  that  vss.  2-5  and  26-29  were 
added  at  a  later  (post-exiUc?)  date.     Cf.  Comms.  in  loc. 

Note  the  date  for  this  poem  c.  750  b.c,  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  61  f. 


142      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

d.  Prophetic  messages  of  Hosea,  chaps.  1-3,  c.  750-740  b.c. 
Chap.  1 :  1-9.     The  prophet's  unfaithful  wife,  etc. 

2  :  2-23.     Israel's  unfaithfuhiess,  punishment  and  resto- 

ration. 

3  : 1-5  +  1 :  10-2  : 1.    Restoration  of  the  prophet's  wife,  etc. 
6.  Other  hterary  productions  which  may  be  included  in  this 

period. 

(a)  The  Prophetic  narratives  of  the  Hexateuch,  J  (in  Judah) 
and  E  (in  Israel).  See  pp.  13  ff.,  20  ff.  =  prior  to  Amos.  c.  900  (or 
850)-760  B.C. 

(6)  The  Memoirs  of  Elijah  and  Ehsha  (El.  or  Pr.)  =  1  Ki.  17- 
19;   21  (mostly);   2  Ki.  2;   4:1-6:23;   8:1-15;    13:14-21. 

EHjah  stories  probably  not  much  later  than  800  B.C. 

EHsha  stories  somewhat  later  than  Elijah  stories.     See  pp.  59  f. 

(c)  The  Prophetic  narratives  relating  to  the  kings  of  Israel  found 
in  1  Ki.  20 ;  22  : 1-38 ;  2  Ki.  3  ;  6  :  24-7  :  20 ;  9-10  (mostly).     (E ?.) 

Probably  contemporary  with  the  Ehjah  stories.     See  p.  59  {c)} 

iii.   Composition  of  the  history  and  literary  productions. 

a.  2  Ki.  14 :  21-15 :  7  is  an  epitome  of  history  incorporated  by 
the  Deut.  compiler.     R°  =  14  :  23  f .,  26-29 ;   15  :  1-4,  6  f . 

6.  In  2  Chr.  26,  in  addition  to  the  Ch.  portion  indicated  in  the 
outline  given  above,  note  vs.  5.  In  vss.  16  ff.,  vss.  206  and  23 
(in  part)  +  21  (largely)  =  2  Ki.  15 :  5,  7. 

c.  Several  portions  of  Amos  are  considered  by  different  scholars 
to  be  editorial  additions,  {a)  Some  as4:13;  5:8f.;  and  9  :  5  f . 
are  questioned  on  account  of  the  conception  of  God's  creative 
power  which  was  not  made  prominent  in  Hebrew  literature  till 
the  Exile  (cf.  Isa.  40  :  22 ;   42  :  5,  etc.),  and  (6)  others  as  1 :  11  f. 

=  Edom,  because  reflecting  the  hostility  of  later  times  against 
this  power ;  and  2 : 4  f .  =  Judah,  on  account  of  the  Deut.  style 
and  the  general  character  of  the  charges.  Other  vss.  regarded 
as  doubtful  are  1 :  9  f . ;   6:2;   8:13. 

d.  The  epilogue  of  Amos,  9 : 8(or  85)-15  is  regarded  by  many 
scholars  as  a  later  addition.  Note  (a)  the  downfall  of  the  Davidic 
kingdom  and  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  presupposed  in  vss.  9,  11 ; 
(6)  hostility  to  Edom  vs.  12,  cf .  above  n.  c ;  and  (c)  the  absence 
of  any  moral  element  in  the  description  of  restoration,  cf .  5 :  24 
(=G.  A.  Smith).  Cf.  contra,  espec.  Driver.  See  further  on 
these  passages  in  Amos  (notes  c-d)  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 

1  The  Decalogue,  Ex.  20 :  1-21  (cf.  Deut.  5  :  6  ff.),  in  its  original  form, 
is  dated  c.  750  b.c.  by  some  scholars  (cf.  Harper,  Amos,  Lxii,  elxxxv; 
EBi,  i.  1050  =  Addis,  etc.).  Note  also  the  view  of  Kautzsch  that  the 
expanded  form  of  the  Decalogue  (see  p.  38,  c)  belongs  to  the  later  stages 
of  development  of  the  religion  of  Israel,  but  not  necessarily  after  the 
8th  century  prophets  (HDB,  extra  vol.  634).  See,  however,  this  voL 
p.  38,  iv.  c. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      143 

e.  Hos.  1 :  7  and  other  passages  which  refer  to  Judah  (cf.  vss.  11 ; 
3 :  5,  etc. ;  cf.  p.  145,  iii.  g)  are  classed  by  a  number  of  scholars 
doubtful  verses,  as  they  disturb  the  connection  of  thought  and 
hence  are  either  alterations  of  the  text  or  later  insertions. 

/.  Hos.  1 :  10-2  :  1  is  considered  to  be  out  of  place  in  its  present 
position  in  the  Biblical  text  for  the  following  reasons :  (a)  it 
contains  a  promise  of  restoration  before  punishment  is  described 
or  the  conditions  of  renovation  are  stated;  and  (b)  it  is  uncon- 
nected as  it  stands  with  what  precedes  or  follows.  It  would 
follow  logically  3 :  5  as  arranged  above,  or  2 :  23.  By  some  it  is 
regarded  in  whole  or  part  a  later  insertion.  Cf.  further  on  these 
vss.  in  Hosea  (notes  e-f)  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc.^ 

(Hos.  2  :  16  and  also  the  whole  description  of  material  blessings 
in  the  vss.  following  are  taken  as  later  additions  by  some  scholars.) 

iv.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  For  chronological  difficulties  connected  with  the  reign  of 
Uzziah  (Azariah),  and  for  explanation  of  the  dating  adopted 
above,  cf.  Ap.  C,  p.  347.  The  dates  for  the  beginning  of  this 
reign,  assigned  by  different  authorities,  vary  from  c.  790  to  779 
or  777  B.C.  There  is  more  agreement  on  the  year  of  its  termina- 
tion, e.g.  c.  740  or  737  b.c. 

b.  The  dates  assigned  to  Jeroboam's  reign  vary  according  to 
different  scholars  from  790  to  781  B.C.  for  its  beginning,  and  from 
749  to  c.  740  B.C.  for  its  end. 

SECTION  VI,  c.  740-735  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel,  c.  740-735  b.c. 

KINGDOM   OF   JUDAH  KINGDOM    OF   ISRAEL 

Jotham,  c.  740-735  B.C.  Zechariah,  c.  740  B.C. 

Cf .  2  Ki.  15  :  5-7.     His  regency.     2  Ki.   14  :  296  ;    15  :  8-12.     His 
15  :  32-35,  37.    Begin-         assassination, 
ning  of  invasion  by  Syria  and  Shallum,  c.  740  b.c. 

Israel  (cf.  2  Chr.  27 :  l-2a*,     2  Ki.  15 :  10,  13-15.     Slain  by 
oa).  IVTenahem 

2  Chr.  27  :  2a*,  25,  36-6.     Forti-        ,.      ,        *    „ .^  ^^„.^.  ^  ^ 
fications  etc  Menahem,  c.  /40-737(?)  b.c. 

2  Ki.  15  :  36,  38.     His  death  (cf.     2  Ki.  15  :  14,  16-22.     Pays  trib- 
2  Chr.  27  :  7-9).  ^^^  to  Assyria,  etc. 

Pekahiah,  737(?)-735  b.c. 
2  Ki.   15 :  226,  23-26.     His  as- 
sassination. 

iCf.    Driver*s   order    1:1-9;     3:1-5;     2:2-23;     1:10-2:1.     LOT, 

303 ;   cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  82  £f. 


144      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

ii.   Literary  productions  of  Judah  and  Israel,  c.  740-735  B.C. 
a.  Judah  =  Isaiah's  messages  in  the  reign  of  Jotham  and  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Ahaz.     c.  740-735  B.C. 
Chap.    6.     The  prophet's  call.     c.  740  b.c. 

2-4.     Judah's  sin,  punishment  and  redemption. 
5  : 1-24  (25)  +  9  :  8-10  :  4  +  5  :  (25)  26-30  =  woes  pro- 
nounced upon  national  sins,  etc. 
17  :  1-11.     Syria  and  Israel  to  be  destroyed. 
6.  Israel  =  Prophetic  messages  of  Hosea,  chaps.  4-14.     c.  740- 
736  B.C. 

Chaps.    4-8.     Gross  corruption  of  Israel's  leaders,   civil  and 
rehgious,  etc. 
9  : 1-11 :  11.     Impending  and  inevitable  punishment. 
11 :  12-14  :  9.     Sin,  punishment  and  restoration,  etc. 

iii.    Composition  of  the  history  and  literary  productions. 

a.  2  Ki.  15 : 8-38  is  an  historical  epitome  incorporated  by  the 
Deut.  compiler.  R^  =  vss.  8  f.,  11-13,  15,  17  f.,  21-24,  26-28, 
31-38.     For  15  :  5-7,  cf.  p.  142,  iii.  a. 

b.  In  2  Chr.  27,  vs.  7  also  =  Ch.  Vss.  l-2a*  +  3a  =  abbre- 
viated from  2  Ki.  15 :  32-35,  37. 

c.  In  the  sections  of  Isaiah  given  above,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that 
the  transposition  of  9  :  8-10  :  4  (relating  to  the  Northern  Kingdom) 
to  the  position  given  it,  is  in  accordance  with  the  order  followed  by 
all  scholars  now.  The  following  are  the  reasons  for  this  rearrange- 
ment :  (a)  the  section  is  evidently  out  of  place  in  the  Bibhcal 
text ;  (6)  the  refrain  of  9  :  12,  17,  21,  and  10  :  4  is  found  in  5  :  25 
but  not  elsewhere  in  that  chapter ;  and  (c)  5  :  26-30  forms  a  fitting 
climax  to  the  whole  description,  which  at  10 : 4  seems  unfinished. 
See  Comms.,  etc.,  in  loc. 

d.  Isa.  2 : 2-4  is  found  with  sUght  variations  in  Mic.  4 : 1-3. 
Different  explanations  have  been  given  of  this  parallelism,  such 
as  one  prophet  borrowing  from  the  other,  or  both  quoting  from 
some  well-known  prophetic  oracle.  Recent  scholars  favor  the 
view  that  this  section  is  a  later  insertion  in  both  prophecies; 
e.g.  Cheyne,  on  the  ground  especially  of  its  three  leading  ideas, 
viz.  prediction  of  Jehovah's  sovereignty  over  foreign  nations  and 
their  adoption  of  His  law ;  the  supremacy  of  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem; and  the  strong  feeling  against  war,  which  he  maintains 
are  all  conceptions  of  post-exilic  writers  (cf.  his  Introd.  Isa.). 
Cf.  contra,  G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of  XII,  i.  365  ff.,  401  f. ;  also  White- 
house,  Isa.  (=  product  of  Isaiah's  later  ministry).  Cf.  further 
Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 

c.  Isa.  2 :  20-22  and  3  :  18-23  are  sections  which  a  nimiber  of 
scholars  consider  later  additions.    Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      145 

/.  On  the  ground  of  style  and  words  and  the  predominantly 
late  ideas  and  images  a  number  of  scholars  regard  Isa.  4 :  2-6 
in  whole  or  part  ( =  vss.  5  f.)  a  later  addition.  Cf.,  however, 
Skinner,  who  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  main  ideas  of  the 
section  are  paralleled  in  other  parts  of  Isaiah.  Cf.  further  Comms. 
and  Introds.  in  loc. 

g.  In  Rosea  4-14  in  addition  to  the  vss.  or  parts  of  vss. 
referring  to  Judah,  6.6f.  4 :  15 ;  5:5;  6:11;  8:14;  10:11;  11: 
12  (cf .  also  5  :  10,  12-14  ;  6:4;  12  :  2,  which  a  number  of  scholars 
retain  substituting  ''Israel"  for  ''Judah"),  which  are  questioned 
(p.  143,  iii.  e.)  the  section  14 :  1-8  is  regarded  by  some  critics  as  a 
later  addition,  especially  on  the  ground  that  it  weakens  the  stem 
warning  of  chap.  13.  Chap.  14,  however,  may  have  been  uttered 
prior  to  chap.  13,  its  present  position  being  due  to  editorial  ad- 
justment in  order  that  the  prophecy  might  end  with  a  message  of 
hope.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  thoughts  of  this  section  are 
all  paralleled  in  previous  chapters  of  this  prophecy  (vs.  1,  cf.  6  :  6 ; 
vs.  3,  cf.  12  :  1,  etc. ;  vs.  4,  cf.  11 :  4,  8  f. ;  vss.  5  ff.,  cf.  2  :  21  ff.). 
It  forms  a  most  appropriate  conclusion  to  the  prophecy  whenever 
and  by  whomever  it  may  have  been  written.  Vs.  9  is  considered 
by  many  scholars  an  editorial  addition,  calhng  attention  to  the 
significance  of  the  prophetic  message  contained  in  the  book.  Cf. 
further  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 

(Hos.  11 :  10  f.,  as  implying  the  Exile,  are  also  considered  by 
many  late  vss.) 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  It  is  known  from  Assyrian  inscriptions  that  the  year  in 
which  Menahem  paid  tribute  to  Pul  (Pulu)  =  Tiglath-pileser 
IV  (2  Ki.  15  :  19 ;  cf .  vs.  29)  was  738  b.c.  A  reasonable  inference 
is  that  this  date  must  have  been  soon  after  his  accession,  as  accord- 
ing to  the  Biblical  statement  the  tribute  was  given  to  secure  the 
Assyrian  support  to  his  position  as  king  (vs.  19).  Cf.  further  on 
this  point  and  the  chronological  difficulties  in  the  closing  years  of 
the  Northern  Kingdom,  Ap.  C,  p.  347.     See  also  below,  under  n.  h. 

h.  For  the  chronological  difficulties  connected  with  the  reigns 
of  Jotham  and  Menahem,  and  for  explanation  of  the  dating 
adopted  above,  cf .  Ap.  C,  pp.  347  f .  It  may  be  added  that  the  view 
is  quite  generally  held  that  the  years  during  which  Jotham  reigned 
as  sole  king  were  between  c.  740  (or  737)  and  735  (or  734)  B.C. 
The  dates  assigned  to  the  accession  of  Menahem  vary  from  .748 
to  c.  740  B.C.  There  is  quite  general  agreement  that  the  end  of 
his  reign  was  c.  737  B.C.,  though  735  and  even  732  b.c.  are  among 
the  years  assigned. 

There  is  less  of  variation  in  the  dating  of  Pekahiah's  reign, 


146      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

e.g.  between  738  and  735  for  its  beginning  and  between  736  and 
734  B.C.  for  its  termination. 


SECTION  VII,  c.  735-719  (?)  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel,  c.  735-719  (?)  B.C. 

KINGDOM   OF  JUDAH  KINGDOM   OF   ISRAEL 

Ahaz,  c.  735-719  (?)  B.C.  Pekah,  c.  735-734  (733?)  B.C. 

2  Ki.  15:386;    16:1-6.     Inva-  2  Ki.  15:25,  27-31.    Assyrian 

sion  by  Syria,  etc.  (cf.  2  Chr.  invasion,  etc. 

28 "  1—4  5*). 

2    Chr.     28 :  5*-15.     Story     of  Hoshea,  734  (733)-725  B.C. 

Oded,  etc.  2  Ki.  15  :  30 ;    17  : 1-6 ;   cf .  18  : 

2  Ki.  16  :  7-9  (cf.  15  :  29).     As-  9-12.     Capture  of  Sa- 

syrian  help  secured  (cf.  2  Chr.  maria,  722-21  B.C. 

28  :  16,  20-21).  17  :  7-41.     Causeof  down- 

2  Chr.  28 :  17-19.     Invasion  by  fall   of   the   Northern 

Edomites,  etc.  Kingdom,  etc. 
2  Ki.  16  :  10-20.     Introduction 

of  Assyrian  worship,  etc.  (cf. 

2 Chr. 28:  22-27).    c. 732 B.C. 

ii.   Literary  productions  of  Judah,  c.  735-719  (?)  B.C. 

a.  Isaiah's  messages  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  invasion,  c.  735  b.c. 

Chaps.  7  : 1-9  :  7.     Present  and  impending  distress ;  promise  of 

future  joy,  etc. 
h.  Isaiah's  messages  during  the  remaining  years  of  the  reign  of 
Ahaz,  c.  735-719  (?)  b.c. 

Chap.  28 : 1-6.  Drunkards  of  Samaria  denounced,     c.  725  b.c. 
23.     Tyre's   immediate   and   remote  future,  —  destruc- 
tion and  restoration.^ 

c.  Messages  of  Micah  during  the  closing  years  of  Ahaz'  reign. 
Chap.  1.     Impending  judgment  upon  Samaria  and  Jerusalem. 

Shortly  before  722-21  b.c.^ 

d.  Other  literature  assigned  with  less  certainty  to  this  period. 

(a)  According  to  Briggs  the  following  7  psalms  belong  to  the 
time  of  the  middle  monarchy,  viz.  3  ;  20-21 ;  27  :  1-6  ;  45  (  =  Jehu) 
58;  61.3 

1  Cf .  the  view  of  Whitehouse  that  Isa.  9  :  7-10 :  4  +  5  :  25-30  is  to  be 
dated  c.  726  b.c.     His  Isa.  in  loc. 

2  Cf.  date  c.  724  b.c.  (Gray,  Introd.  218).  Chap.  1  in  whole  or  in 
part,  together  with  chaps.  2-3,  are  assigned  to  c.  701  b.c.  by  some  scholars. 
See  Introd.  notes,  pp.  101  f.  ^  Qf^  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxxix  ff. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      147 

(6)  According  to  Kirkpatrick  the  following  psalms  belong  to 
the  8th  century ;  49  (possibly  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham) ; 
50  (cf.  Hosea,  Isaiah  and  Micah) ;  52  (?). 

iii.   Composition  of  the  history  and  literary  productions. 

a.  2  Ki.  15 :  27-31  +  16  :  1-20  =  an  epitome  of  history  derived 
by  the  Deut.  compiler  from  the  annals  of  the  Kingdoms.  Possibly 
16  :  10-18  may  have  been  taken  from  the  Temple  records.  R^  = 
15  :  27  f.,  31  +  16:1-4,  19  f. 

b.  (a)  2  Ki.  17 :  1-6,  7-28  +  18 :  9-12  =  historical  epitomes 
incorporated  by  the  Deut.  compiler,  together  with  extended 
comment.     R^  =  17  :  1  f.,  7-23  (or  largely  R^') ;    18  :  12. 

(6)  There  is  general  agreement  that  17 :  29-41  is  composite, 
to  be  analyzed  as  follows :  vss.  29-34a,  41  and  vss.  345-40. 
Vss.  346^0,  which  apparently  refer  to  Israelites  (=  Samaritans), 
are  assigned  by  some  to  the  later  Deut.  compiler  (R^^),  by  others 
simply  to  R.  Vss.  29-34a,  41,  which  relate  to  foreign  colonists 
alone,  according  to  some  =  a  part  of  the  historical  narrative  (cf. 
vss.  24-28) ;  by  others  =  R^l 

c.  In  2  Chr.  28,  in  addition  to  the  Ch.  portions  indicated  in  the 
outline  given  above,  note  also  changes  by  Ch.  in  vss.  2  f.,  16,  20  f. 
and  22-27  in  almost  every  vs. 

d.  While  the  above  dating  for  Isa.  7  :  1-9  :  7,  as  a  whole,  is  the 
one  usually  given,  certain  portions,  especially  in  chap.  8,  and 
9 : 2-7,  have  been  considered  by  a  number  of  scholars,  in  recent 
years,  as  belonging  either  to  a  later  time  in  the  prophet's  career, 
or  as  later  (exihc)  additions  to  the  prophecy.  Cf.  especially 
Cen.  B.  and  Int.  Crit.  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  Isa.  23 :  15-18,  which  is  in  prose  (except  vs.  16,  cf.  vss.  1-14 
=  poetic  in  form),  and  which  forms  an  appendix  to  the  preceding 
part  of  the  chapter,  is  considered  by  many  to  be  a  later  addition. 
Note  (a)  the  number  70  (vs.  15)  is  found  in  late  literature  (Zech. 
1 :  12;  2  Chr.  36:  21,  etc.),  and  in  all  these  places  the  reference 
is  more  or  less  explicit  to  Jeremiah's  prediction  (Jer.  25:  11  f . ; 
cf.  29  :  10) ;  and  (b)  the  use  to  which  the  riches  of  Tyre  are  to  be 
put  (vs.  18)  may  be  suggested  by  such  late  prophecies  as  Isa.  45 : 
14 ;   60  : 1.     See  Comms.  in  loc. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  From  Assyrian  records  it  is  known  that  the  capture  of  Da- 
mascus by  Tiglath-pileser  IV  (2  Ki.  16 : 9)  occupied  two  years, 
733-732  B.C.  The  visit  of  Ahaz  to  Damascus  (2  Ki.  16 :  10  if.) 
undoubtedly  occurred  after  the  capture  of  this  city  in  732  B.C. 
This  determines  the  date  of  the  erection  of  the  altar  at  Jerusalem 
(vss.  10  ff.). 


148      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

For  the  chronological  significance  of  the  reference  to  So  of 
Egypt  (2  Ki.  17 : 4),  and  for  the  campaign  of  Shalmaneser  V 
against  Hoshea,  see  Ap.  C,  p.  348,  n.  2. 

b.  The  capture  of  Samaria  by  the  Assyrians  occurred  in  722-21 
B.C.,  in  the  beginning  of  Sargon's  reign,  according  to  the  records 
of  this  monarch.  The  siege  lasted  three  years  (2  Ki.  17 :  5), 
which  places  its  beginning  in  725  or  724  b.c. 

c.  The  occasion  of  Isa.  9 : 1  was  the  capture  of  GaHlee,  etc., 
(''land  of  Zebulon  and  land  of  Naphtali,"  vs.  1),  by  Tiglath-pileser 
IV,  734  B.C.  (2  Ki.  15  :  29).  Vss.  2-7  may  belong  to  a  later  date. 
Cf.  above,  iii.  d. 

d.  For  the  chronological  difiiculties  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
Northern  Kingdom,  and  the  reign  of  Ahaz  of  Judah,  and  for  the 
dating  adopted  above,  cf.  Ap.  C,  pp.  347  ff.  Pekah's  reign,  it  is 
generally  agreed,  must  come  within  the  years  736-730  b.c.  The 
dates  assigned  to  Hoshea' s  accession  vary  from  734  to  729  b.c, 
and  for  its  close  from  725  to  722  (721)  b.c.  For  the  reign  of  Ahaz 
there  is  a  variation  of  from  736  to  733  b.c.  for  its  beginning,  and 
from  728  to  715  b.c.  for  its  end. 


THE   SURVIVING   KINGDOM   OF   JUDAH 

SECTION  VIII,  719  (?)-c.  690  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah,  719  (?)-c.  690  B.C. 
Hezekiah,  719  (?)-c.  690  b.c. 
2  Ki.  16  :  206 ;    18  :  1-8.     His  character  and  reforms,  etc.     (Cf . 

2  Chr.  29  :  1-2.) 
2  Chr,  29:3-31:21.     Exhortation  to  priesthood,  etc.   (29:3  ff.) ; 

Passover  (chap.  30) ;  support  of  the  priesthood,  etc.  (chap.  31). 
2  Ki.  20  :  1-19.     The  king's  sickness  and  recovery ;  embassy  from 

Merodach-baladan.     [Cf .  Isa.  38  :  1-8,  21-22  +  39  :  1-8  ;  2  Chr. 

32 :  24,  (27),  31]  =  c.  713-711  or  c.  704-702  b.c. 
(Isa.  38 :  9-20.     Hezekiah's  psalm  of  thanksgiving.) 
2  Chr.  32  :  25-29.     The  king^s  pride  and  humility. 
2  Ki.  18 :  13-16.     His  submission  to  Sennacherib.     (Cf.  2  Chr. 

32:1;   Isa.  36:1).     701  b.c. 
2  Chr.  32  :  2-8.     His  measures  of  defence. 
2  Ki.  18  :  17-19  :  37.     Demand  for  surrender  of  Jerusalem  refused  ; 

final  repulse  of  Assyria.    (Cf .  Isa.  36  :  2-37  :  38 ;  2  Chr.  32  :  9-23.) 

701  B.C. 

20:20-21.     The  king's  deeds  and  death.     (Cf.  2  Chr.  32: 
30,  32  f.) 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED    KINGDOM      149 

ii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources  of  Hezekiah's  reign. 

a.  2  Ki.  18 :  1-8,  13-16  =  an  epitome  of  history  derived  from 
the  amials  of  the  kingdom  and  ampHfied  by  the  Deut.  compiler, 
at  least  vss.  1-8  which  =  R^.  Vss.  14-16,  which  are  not  found 
in  Isa.  36,  are  distinguished  from  vs.  13  and  vss.  17  ff.  by  a  shorter 
form  of  the  name  of  Hezekiah  in  the  Hebrew. 

b.  2  Ki.  18 :  17-19  :  37.  In  reference  to  the  source  of  this  sec- 
tion there  is  difference  of  opinion  among  scholars,  (a)  Driver 
takes  it  as  a  long  Prophetic  narrative  relating  to  Judah  (like  the 
graphic  accounts  of  affairs  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  extending  at 
intervals  from  1  Ki.  17  to  2  Ki.  14),  which  he  thinks  had  its  origin 
in  the  generation  after  Isaiah.  (6)  Many  others,  however,  con- 
sider the  section  to  be  composite,  viz.  18 :  17-19 :  9a,  36-37  and 
19  :  96-35  (cf.  the  fact  that  19  :  96-35  interrupts  the  connection 
between  vs.  9a  and  vss.  36  f.,  its  sequel ;  also  that  19 :  10-13  is 
parallel  to  18:28-35).  A  number  of  scholars  assign  19:96-35 
to  the  same  source  as  chap.  20  (see  below,  n.  c).  Whatever 
the  sources  of  the  section  it  was  incorporated  by  the  Deut. 
compiler.  It  may  be  added  that  19  :  21-31  (cf.  Isa.  37  :  22-32) 
was  perhaps  borrowed  from  an  early  collection  of  Isaiah's  writ- 
ings. Vss.  21-28,  which  are  in  poetry  (the  meter  being  that  of 
the  taunt  song),  are  considered  by  Skinner,  owing  to  the  elabora- 
tion, not  to  have  been  uttered  by  Isaiah  at  the  time.  Others,  as 
Cheyne,  regard  the  whole  section,  vss.  21-31,  to  be  a  later  addi- 
tion.    Cf.  Skinner,  Ki.  in  loc.     EBi,  ii.  2203  (Cheyne). 

c.  2  Ki.  20  is  also  probably  based  on  the  ''Book  of  the  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Judah,"  incorporated  by  the  Deut.  compiler.  It 
is  the  opinion,  however,  of  some  scholars  that  the  chap,  was 
derived  from  a  circle  of  Prophetic  (Isaiah)  stories  as  were  the 
Elijah-Elisha  tales.  R^  =  vss.  20  f.  Vss.  17  f.,  referring  to  the 
Babylonian  exile,  are  taken  either  as  a  gloss,  or  with  the  expla- 
nation that  the  word  ''Assyria"  of  the  original  prediction  was 
changed  by  a  later  compiler  (R^^)  to  "Babylon."  Cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  2  Chr.  32 :  9-21  is  an  abridged  account  of  2  Ki.  18 :  17-19 : 
37.  32 :  22-23  and  vss.  32-33  (largely)  =  Ch. 

e.  Isa.  36-39,  which  form  a  section  parallel  to  2  Ki.  18 :  17- 
20 :  19,  are  generally  believed  to  have  been  derived  by  the  com- 
piler of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  from  the  book  of  Kings.  For 
reasons,  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

/.  Isa.  38  :  9-20  =  the  Psalm  of  Hezekiah,  is  regarded  by  many 
scholars  as  a  later  poem  adopted  as  an  expression  of  the  king's 
feelings.  Cf.  (a)  the  liturgical  use  of  the  poem  (cf.  vs.  9  with 
headings  of  Pss.  3,  51,  52,  etc.)  indicates  its  use  as  a  part  of  a 
collection  in  the  Temple  services;    (6)  its  position  in  Isa.  gives 


150     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

evidence  of  insertion,  cf .  vss.  21  f .  which  are  displaced  from  their 
right  position  after  vs.  8;  and  (c)  Hnguistic  affinities  with  later 
literature,  especially  Job  (vs.  10,  cf .  Job  38  :  17  ;  vs.  12,  cf .  Job  4  : 
19,  21;  6:9  and  27:8;  vs.  13,  cf.  Job  10:16).  On  the  other 
hand  its  authenticity  is  defended  by  Davison,  Dillmann  and  others. 
Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.     HDB,  iv.  149  (Davison),  etc. 

iii.  Chronological  notes  in  connection  with  the  historical  records  of 
Hezekiah's  reign. 

a.  The  chronology  of  Hezekiah's  reign  presents  great  difficul- 
ties. The  dates  given  to  it  by  different  scholars  vary  from  728 
(727)  to  715  (714)  b.c.  for  its  beginning,  and  from  699  to  686 
(685)  B.C.  for  its  close.     For  discussion,  see  Ap.  C,  pp.  350  f.  (6). 

h.  Whatever  reforms  belong  to  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Ki.  18  : 1  ff., 
cf.  2  Chr.  29-31)  are  thought  by  many  scholars  to  have  been 
enacted  after  the  deliverance  from  Sennacherib  in  701  b.c.  (cf. 
below,  n.  d),  when  Isaiah's  influence  became  dominant.  Cf. 
Comms.  in  loc. 

c.  The  dates  for  the  embassy  of  Merodach-baladan  (2  Ki.  20 
and  parallels),  which  have  been  considered  most  probable,  are 
either  (a)  a  few  years  prior  to  710-709  b.c,  when  he  was  in  revolt 
against  Sargon  of  Assyria ;  or  (6)  in  the  early  years  of  Sennache- 
rib's reign  (704-702  b.c),  when  he  was  again  in  rebellion  against 
the  Assyrians.     Cf.  Comms.  on  Ki.  and  Isa.  in  loc. 

d.  The  year  701  b.c  as  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Judah  by 
Sennacherib  (the  fourth  year  of  his  reign),  cf.  2  Ki.  18 :  13  ff.  and 
parallels,  is  one  of  the  certain  dates  estabUshed  by  the  Assyrian 
records  and  chronology.     Cf.  Comms.  on  Ki.  and  Isa.  in  loc,  etc. 

e.  Some  scholars  connect  the  account  in  2  Ki.  18 :  17-19 :  37 
(or  at  least  19 :  96-37)  with  a  later  expedition  of  Sennacherib  to 
the  West,  c.  691  b.c  (for  which  it  is  claimed  there  is  sufficient 
evidence  from  Assyrian  records),  in  which  Hezeldah  was  probably 
involved.  Tirhaka  (2  Ki.  19  :  7-9),  it  is  maintained,  did  not  actu- 
ally come  to  the  throne  of  Egypt  till  c.  691  b.c  For  discussion  of 
this  view,  cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  501  f.  Skinner,  Ki.  388,  n.  1 ; 
his  Isa.  i.  p.  xix,  n.  2.  Paton,  Hist.  Syria,  etc.,  258  ff.  Rogers, 
Cuneiform  Parallels,  336  ff.,  345  f.  (=  between  688-682  b.c). 
Barnes,  Ki.  279  f.,  etc. 

/.  The  assassination  of  Sennacherib  (2  Ki.  19  :  37  ;  Isa.  37  :  38 ; 
2  Chr.  32  :  21)  occurred  in  681  b.c  This  date  is  derived  from  the 
Babylonian  Chronicle.     Cf.  Comms.  on  Ki.,  Isa.  and  Chr.  in  loc. 

iv.   Literary  productions  of  Hezekiah's  reign,  719 (?)  ff.  b.c 
a.  Prophetic  messages  of  Micah  in  the  early  years  of  the  reign. 
Chaps.  2-3.     Oppressive  nobles  denounced  for  their  cruelty. 
Soon  after  719  b.c 


BIBLICAL    OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED    KINGDOM      151 

b.  Prophetic  messages  of  Isaiah  in  Hezekiah's  reign,  719  and 

711  B.C. 

Chap.  14:28-32.     Philistia  to  be  destroyed,  etc.     719  (?)  b.c. 
20.     Symbolic  prediction  of  the  conquest  of  Eg^q^t,  etc. 

711  B.C. 

15-16.     Moab's   distress   and   impending   downfalL     c. 

711  B.C. 

19.     Jehovah's  judgment  upon  Egypt,  etc.     c.  711  b.c 
21 :  11-17.      Distress    for    Edom,    Dedan    and    Kedar. 

C.  711  (?)  B.C. 

c.  Prophetic  messages  of  Isaiah  during  the  period  705-701  b.c. 
Chap.  10  : 5-34.     Assyria  the  unconscious  instrument  of  Jeho- 
vah's judgment,  etc. 

11-12.     Predictions  of  the  ideal  future. 

14  :  24-27.  Prediction  of  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrians 
in  Judah. 

17 :  12-14.  Another  prediction  of  their  sudden  destruc- 
tion. 

18.  Announcement  to  Ethiopian  ambassadors,  etc. 
c.  702  B.C. 

28.  Jerusalem's  condition  compared  with  that  of 
Samaria,  etc.     c.  702  b.c. 

29.  Humihation  and  deUverance  of  Jerusalem,  etc.  c. 
702  B.C. 

30-31.  Vanity  of  relying  upon  Eg3rptian  help,  etc. 
702-701  B.C. 

32.     ''Aristocracy  of  character,"  etc.     701  b.c. 

(33.  Appeal  to  Jehovah  against  Assjrian  (?)  oppres- 
sion, etc.)     701  (?)  B.C. 

22 :  15-25.  Denunciation  of  Shebna,  etc.  Before 
701  B.C. 

1.     ''The  great  arraignment."     c.  701  b.c. 

22 : 1-14.  The  unseemly  joy  of  the  people  rebuked, 
c.  701  B.C.12 

d.  Prophetic  messages  of  Micah,  c.  701  b.c. 

Chaps.  4-5.     Zion's  future  glory  and  immediate  distress. 

e.  Other  literature  assigned  with  less  certainty  to  HezekiaK's  reign. 
(a)  Pss.   46;    47(?);    48  =  The   glory  of   Zion,   protected  by 

Jehovah,     c.  701  b.c. 

^  Note  also  the  view  of  some  scholars  that  Isa.  22 :  1-14  refers  to  con- 
ditions before  the  appearance  of  the  Assyrian  army  =  c.  704  or  703  b.c  ; 
cf .  Moore,  LOT,  152 ;  Wade,  Isa.  142.  For  variant  views  classified,  see 
LOT,  217  f. 

^  Cf.  also  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  in  connection  with  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem,  2  Ki.  19 :  20-34  (//  Isa.  37 :  21-35) ;   see  p.  149,  ii.  6. 


152      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

The  following  additional  psalms  are  assigned  to  this  reign  by 
Kirkpatrick. 

72  =  possibly  on  Hezekiah's  accession. 
78  =  perhaps  after  722  B.C. 
53 ;  65-67  ;  75-76  =  701  b.c. 

(b)  ''The  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Israel"  [cf. 
pp.  59  f.  (d)]  =  soon  after  722  B.c.i 

(c)  Possibly  also  ''the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 
Judah"  [cf.  p.  60,  (/)]  in  the  main  =  sometime  in  this  reign.^ 

(d)  Possibly  the  later  history  of  Samuel  and  Saul  (designated 
by  some  scholars  SS),  found  in  the  books  of  Sam.  =1  S.  1 : 
l-5a,  6-28;  2:ll-22a,  23-26;  3:l-21a;  8;  10:17-24;  15 
(?);,17:1-11,  12-13*,  14a-18 : 5  (see  LXX  vers.,  p.  74,  nJ); 
18 :  12-19,  28-30  (see  LXX  text,  p.  74,  n.  2) ;  19 : 1,  2,  4-17 ;  21 : 
1-9;  22;  26;  2  S.  1 : 6-10,  13-16.  Near  end  of  Northern  King- 
dom =  Kautzsch,  McCurdy,  etc. ;  reign  of  Hezekiah  =  Kittel,  etc.^ 

(e)  Possibly  Prov.  25-29,  or  the  nucleus  of  this  collection 
(cf.  pp.  120  f.  6.). 

V.  Notes  on  the  composition  and  chronology  of  the  prophetic 
literature  assigned  to  HezekiaKs  reign. 

a.  Mic.  2  :  12-13,  a  promise  of  restoration,  which  interrupts  the 
connection  between  2:11  and  3:1,  is  regarded  by  practically 
all  scholars  as  out  of  place  as  it  stands.  Some  insert  these  verses 
in  chap.  4  after  vs.  7  or  8.  By  others  {e.g.  Cheyne)  they  are  con- 
sidered a  later,  post-exihc  addition,  parallel  to  sections  in  Deutero- 
Isaiah.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

Cf.  also  the  fact  that  chaps.  1-3  are  assigned  to  c.  701  B.C.  by 
some  scholars.     See  Introd.  notes,  pp.  101  f.  a. 

b.  For  variant  dates  for  Isa.  14  :  28-32,  cf .  Introd.  notes,  p.  95, 4.  a. 

c.  Note  the  fact  that  Isa.  15 :  1-16 :  12  is  considered  by  many 
an  earlier  prophecy  (time  of  Jeroboam  II)  to  which  Isaiah  added 
vss.  13  f.     Cf.  Introd.  notes,  pp.  95  f.,  4.  c. ;  see  also  p.  141,  ii.  a. 

d.  Isa.  19  :  16-25  is  a  much  disputed  section.  Cf .  Introd.  notes, 
pp.  96  f.,  4.  d. 

e.  Isa.  21 :  11-17  is  considered  by  Skinner  and  others  exilic. 
Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 

/.  Isa.  11 :  10-16  is  regarded  by  many  scholars  as  a  later  addi- 

1  Cf.  Bennett,  Introd.  97  f.     Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  17. 

2  Bennett,  Ibid. 

3  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  28  f.,  45,  184,  237,  239.  HPM,  iii.  pp.  73  f. 
(§  935).     Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  pp.  34  f.,  45,  376  f. 

The  outline  of  the  late  Samuel  and  Saul  sections  given  above  is  prac- 
tically that  adopted  by  Kautzsch.  For  a  somewhat  different  classifica- 
tion and  analysis  of  these  chaps,  followed  in  this  vol.,  cf.  p.  53,  C.  ii.  b.  and 
p.  74,  iii.  a.  b. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD    OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      153 

tion  to  the  prophecy,  especially  on  the  grounds :  (a)  that  the 
exile  in  Assyria,  etc.,  is  presupposed  (of.  vs.  11),  and  (b)  these 
exiles  are  described  as  a  '^ remnant"  (vs.  11),  which  implies  that 
some  had  already  been  restored  to  their  own  land.  In  view  of 
these  and  other  facts  Skinner  ''hesitates  to  assign  this  section  to 
Isaiah."  Both  exihc  and  post-exilic  dates  have  been  claimed  for 
it.  Its  authenticity,  on  the  other  hand,  is  accepted  by  Driver, 
McCurdy,  Dillmann,  etc.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

g.  The  opinion  of  Ewald  has  been  slowly  gaining  ground  among 
scholars,  and  at  present  is  widely  accepted,  that  Isa.  12  is  a  later 
(post-exihc)  addition  to  Isaiah's  prophecies,  for  the  following 
reasons :  (a)  the  secondary  and  imitative  character  of  the 
poem,  —  its  literary  affinities  being  with  Ex.  15,  lyrical  passages 
interspersed  in  Isa.  24-27  and  late  psalms ;  (6)  with  the  exception 
of  ''Holy  One  of  Israel"  (vs.  6)  it  has  none  of  Isaiah's  distinctive 
phraseology ;  and  (c)  in  no  other  place  does  Isaiah  close  an  oracle 
with  a  Uturgical  ode  hke  this.  On  the  other  hand,  Dillmann, 
McCurdy,  Davison,  etc.,  take  it  as  Isaiah's  production.  Cf. 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

h.   For  Isa.  28 :  1-6,  which   dates  c.  725  B.C.,  cf .  p.  94,  3.  a. 

i.  Isa.  29 :  16-24  (or  18-24)  and  30 :  18-33  (or  18-26)  are 
regarded  by  a  number  of  scholars  as  post-exihc  additions,  espe- 
cially on  the  ground  that  they  are  out  of  harmony  with  the  leading 
thought  of  these  chaps.,  viz.  to  expose  the  politicians  and  declare 
divine  judgment  upon  the  nation  (e.g.  28:11;  29:13).  Cf. 
further,  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

j.  Many  scholars  regard  Isa.  32  in  whole  or  part  as  a  late  pro- 
duction. Vss.  1-8,  according  to  Skinner,  belong  most  naturally 
at  the  close  of  Isaiah's  ministry,  "when  his  mind  was  occupied 
with  the  hope  of  the  ideal  future."     Cf.  Comms.  in  loc. 

k.  For  the  possibiUty  of  Isa.  33  belonging  to  a  later  date,  cf. 
Introd.  notes,  pp.  98  f.  j.  Driver  and  McCurdy  among  others 
accept  the  Isaianic  authorship. 

I.  For  the  view  that  Isa.  1  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  cf. 
Introd.  notes,  p.  99,  I,  Some  scholars  regard  vss.  27-31  (or 
29-31)  as  possibly  a  later  addition.     See  Comms.  etc. 

m.  In  reference  to  Mic.  4-5  two  views  are  held.  One  is  that 
these  chaps,  as  a  whole  are  late;  e.g.  Nowack  (HDB,  iii.  359), 
whose  conclusion  is  that  if  anything  is  Micah's  it  cannot  be  more 
than  4:9  f.;  5:1,  10-14.  His  view  is  based  upon:  (a)  the 
strange  conjunction  of  Messianic  hopes  of  4  : 1  ff.  with  the  threat- 
enings  of  3 :  12 ;  (6)  the  presence  of  mutually  exclusive  views 
(cf.  4  :  6-8  with  vss.  9  f . ;  4  :  11-13  with  5:1;  5:2-4  with  vss.  5  f., 
etc.) ;  and  (c)  the  expression  of  ideas  which  did  not  become 
current  till  a  later  time  (cf.  4  :  11-13  with  Ezek.  38,  etc. ;  also  the 


154      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

conception  in  4:  6-8).  On  the  other  hand  it  is  maintained  that 
there  is  nothing  inconsistent  with  authorship  in  the  8th  cen. 
B.C.,  and  much  favoring  it,  as  all,  in  the  way  of  threat  and  promise 
found  in  these  chaps.,  is  paralleled  in  Hosea  and  Isa.,  except  the 
reference  to  ''pillars"  (5:  13),  and  this  may  be  explained  as  in 
line  with  Hezekiah's  reforms  (2  Ki.  18  :  3  ff.,  e.g.  G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of 
XII,  i.  367  f.,  400  ff.). 

The  clause  "and  shalt  come  even  unto  Babylon"  (4:10)  is 
thought  by  many,  who  hold  to  Micah's  authorship  of  the  context, 
to  be  a  gloss,  as  exile  to  Babylon  is  not  in  harmony  with  the 
description  of  victory  vss.  11-13  and  5:2-6.  With  its  omission 
the  sense  is  clear  and  consistent.  Cf .  further  Introds.  and  Comms. 
in  loc. 

SECTION  IX,  c.  690-641  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah,  c.  690-641  b.c. 
Manasseh,  c.  690-641  b.c. 
2  Ki.  20 :  216 ;    21 : 1-18.     The  king's  idolatry  and  oppressions, 

etc.  (vss.  1-9,  18//2  Chr.  33  :  1-10  and  vs.  20). 
2  Chr.  33 :  11-19.     The  king's  captivity,  repentance,  etc. 

ii.   Literary  productions  of  Manasseh' s  reign,  c.  690-641  b.c. 

a.  Prophetic  messages  of  Micah  in  this  reign. 

Chaps.  6  :  1-7  :  6.     A  denunciation  of  national  corruption. 

(7 : 7-20.     Promise    of   national    restoration    and   for- 
giveness.) 
h.  Other  literary  activity  which  may  belong  to  this  reign. 
(a)  The  combination  of  the  Prophetic  sources  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch,  J  and  E,  by  R"^^,  c.  650  b.c.     See  pp.  23  f. 

(6)  The  composition  of  the  main  portion  of  Deuteronomy  = 
chaps.  (5-11),  12-26  +  28.     Cf.  pp.  127  ff. 

iii.   Composition  of  the  history  and  the  literary  productions. 

a.  2  Ki.  21 : 1-18  belongs  to  the  Deut.  compiler,  R^.  By  a 
number  of  scholars  a  part  is  assigned  to  R^^  e.g.  vss.  10-15  (16), 
especially  on  the  ground  that  the  Exile  is  presupposed.  By  some 
vss.  7-9  are  also  included.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

b.  Mic.  7 : 7-20  is  now  by  many  scholars  held  to  be  a  later 
addition  to  the  prophecy,  of  exihc  or  post-exilic  date,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons :  (a)  the  different  situation  implied  from  the 
preceding  sections,  i.e.  the  nation  is  in  captivity  (cf.  vss.  8  and  11) ; 
(6)  the  wide  extent  of  the  dispersion  (vs.  12) ;  and  (c)  linguistic 
parallels  with  Isa.  40  if.  (cf.  7  :  86,  96  with  Isa.  42  :  16 ;  62  :  16 ; 
and  7  :  9a  with  42 :  24  f.,  etc.).     Driver,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      155 

that  a  prophet  (in  Micah's  day),  conceiving  the  destruction  to 
be  impending,  pictured  it  as  if  actually  realized,  and  from  that 
standpoint  predicts  the  restoration.  G.  A.  Smith  concludes  that 
the  section  is  composed  of  Httle  pieces  of  various  dates,  from  be- 
fore the  capture  of  Samaria  722-21  B.C.  to  a  time  as  late  as  after 
the  Exile.  He  considers  that  the  main  portion  belongs  soon  after 
734  B.C.  =  the  capture  of  Galilee  by  Tiglath-pileser  IV.  Cf .  LOT, 
332  ff.     G.  A.  Smith,  Bk  of  XII,  i.  pp.  372  ff. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  year  of  Manasseh's  accession  depends  on  the  date 
accepted  for  the  end  of  Hezekiah's  reign.  Cf.  above,  p.  150,  iii.  a. 
There  is  much  difficulty  in  adjusting  the  number  of  years  assigned 
to  his  reign,  viz.  55  (2  Ki.  21  :  1),  in  any  chronological  scheme. 
The  dates  adopted  by  different  scholars  vary  from  699  to  686 
(685)  B.C.  for  its  beginning,  and  from  643  to  637  B.C.  for  its  close. 
Cf.  further  Ap.  C,  p.  351. 

b.  No  mention  is  found  in  the  Assyrian  records  of  a  rebellion 
of  Manasseh,  the  Biblical  account  of  which  is  pecuhar  to  the  late 
book  of  Chronicles  (2  C.  33  :  11  ff.).  For  its  historical  character 
and  possible  occasion,  cf.  Comms.  in  loc.  See  also  McCurdy, 
HPM,  ii.  376  ff.,  386  ff.  (§§  789  ff.,  801  ff.). 

SECTION  X,  641-608  B.C. 

i.  Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah,  641-608  B.C. 
Amon,  641-639  b.c. 
2  Ki.  21 :  186,  19-26.     The  king's  idolatry  and  assassination  (cf. 
2  Chr.  33  :  21-25). 

Josiah,  639-608  b.c. 
2  Ki.   21 :  266 ;    22 : 1-2.     Josiah's   good    character   (cf .   2  Chr. 

34:1-2). 
2  Chr.  34 :  3-7.     His  early  measures  of  reform. 
2  Ki.    22  :  3-23  :  27.     The  Law  Book  discovered ;    reforms,  etc. 
(Cf.  2  Chr.  34  :  8-35  :  19).     621  b.c. 
23:28-30a.     The  king's  death    (cf.    2    Chr.    35:20-27). 
608  B.C. 
Cf .  Jer.  22 :  15  f .     Josiah's  character. 

ii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources. 

a.  2  Ki.  21 :  19-26  =  an  historical  epitome  derived  from  the 
annals  of  the  Kingdom  and  incorporated  by  the  Deut.  compiler. 
R°  =  vss.  19-22,  25  f. 

b.  2  Ki.  22 : 1-23 :  27  as  a  whole,  which  forms  a  continuous 


156      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

narrative,  is  thought  by  a  number  of  scholars  to  have  been  derived 
probably  from  the  Temple  archives.  Of  this  the  following  verses 
are  BP ;  22:1-2,  135(?).  A  number  of  scholars  assign  the 
following  verses  to  R^' ;  22  :  16-20  (or  20a) ;  23  :  16-18  (or  16-20), 
26-27  (possibly  24-27).  Contrast  the  different  tone  of  these  vss. 
with  the  pre-exilic  enthusiasm  for  Josiah's  reforms  as  seen  for 
example  in  23 :  22,  25.  For  the  possibihty  that  some  of  these 
vss.  are  still  later  additions,  and  for  the  analysis  in  general,  cf. 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

c.  2  Ki.  23  :  28-30a  =  an  historical  epitome  incorporated  by  the 
Deut.  compiler.     Cf.  R°  =  vs.  28. 

d.  2  Chr.  33 :  21-25  is  remodeled  by  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  from 
the  account  in  Kings  (2  Ki.  21 :  19-26) ;   cf.  espec.  vs.  23. 

e.  In  2  Chr.  34 :  8-33,  vss.  12-14,  32-33  =  espec.  Ch. ;  cf.  also 
in  vss.  15,  18.     Vss.  29-33  are  abridged  from  2  Ki.  23 :  1-14. 

/.  In  2  Chr.  35,  vss.  1-19  are  largely  Ch.  Vss.  20-27  are  ex- 
panded by  the  Chronicler  from  2  Ki.  23  :  28-30a. 

iii.   Chronological  notes  on  the  historical  records  of  this  period. 

a.  According  to  2  Chr.  34 : 3  the  reforms  recorded  in  vss.  3-7 
belong  in  the  12th  year  of  Josiah's  reign  =  628-27  B.C.  It  is 
to  be  noted,  however,  that  these  reforms  are  practically  included 
in  the  reformation  of  621  B.C.,  which  is  described  in  2  Ki.  23  :  4-20. 

h.  The  dates  of  the  reign  of  Necho  II  of  Egypt  are  610  (609)- 
594  B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  23 :  28  f.).  609  (608)  b.c.  is  the  date  usually 
given  for  the  defeat  and  death  of  Josiah  at  Megiddo.  For  reference 
by  Herodotus  to  Necho's  campaign  in  Syria ;  also  a  comparison  of 
this  with  the  Bibhcal  account,  etc. ;  cf.  Comms.  in  loc. ;  also 
HDB,  ii.  1586  (White) ;  iii.  5046  (Crum).  EBi,  ii.  1246  (W.  Max 
Miiller),  etc. 

iv.   Literary  productions  of  JosiaKs  reign,  639-608  b.c. 

a.  Prophetic  messages  of  Zephaniah,  c.  630-625  b.c. 
Chaps.  1-2.     Jehovah's  day  of  sweeping  judgment  described,  etc. 
3.     Jerusalem  to  be  punished ;   promise  of  ideal  future. 
6.  Prophetic  messages  of  Jeremiah  prior  to  Josiah^s  reforms,  i.e. 
626-621  B.C. 

Chap.  1.     The  prophet's  call  and  mission.     626  b.c. 
2.     Judah's  gross  apostasy,  etc. 

3  :  1-4  :  2.     The  sin  of  Judah  and  Israel  compared,  etc. 
4 : 3-6 :  30.     An  invasion  of  Judah  predicted   and  de- 
scribed,    c.  626  B.C. 

c.    The  hook  of  Deuteronomy. 621  b.c. 

Chaps.  5-11.     Hortatory  introduction  to  the  Code. 
12-26  +  28.     The  Code  proper. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      157 

d.  Prophetic  messages  of  Jeremiah  connected  with  the  reformation, 
621  B.C. 

Chap.  11 :  1-8.     The  prophet  proclaims  the  words  of  the  cove- 
nant. 
(17  :  19-27.     Exhortation  to  keep  the  Sabbath,  etc.) 

e.  Prophetic  messages  of  Nahum,  end  of  Josiah's  reign,  c.  610- 
608  B.C. 

Chap.  1.     Jehovah   to  destroy  His  enemies  and  restore  His 
people. 
2-3.     Vivid    descriptions    of    the    impending    siege    of 
Nineveh. 
/.   Possibly  the  nucleus  of  Prov.  10  : 1-22  :  16.    621  ff.  B.C.     Cf . 
p.  120. 

V.  Notes  on  the  composition  and  chronology  of  the  prophetic  and 
other  literature  assigned  to  Josiah's  reign,  639-608  B.C. 

a.  Zeph.  1  is  assigned  besides  by  some  scholars  to  Josiah's  reign 
after  621  b.c.  ;  and  by  others  to  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  608-597 
B.C.     For  discussion  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

b.  Zeph.  2  :  8-11  is  regarded  by  some  scholars  (e.g.  G.  A.  Smith ; 
J.  M.  P.  Smith ;  Kent)  as  a  later  addition  to  the  prophecy.  Cf . 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

c.  Zeph.  3 :  9-10  is  considered  by  several  scholars  as  a  later 
addition :  (a)  these  vss.  interrupt  the  connection  of  thought ; 
(5)  the  Exile  is  presupposed  in  vs.  10 ;  and  (c)  the  conversion  of 
the  heathen  is  in  contrast  to  the  thought  of  judgment  in  the 
previous  vs.  and  section.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  Zeph.  3 :  14-20  is  now  held  by  many  scholars  to  be  a  later 
addition,  towards  the  end  of  the  Exile  or  immediately  after  the 
Return  (cf.  Am.  9 : 8  ff.)  for  the  following  reasons :  (a)  the 
different  tone  in  this  section  compared  with  the  note  of  severe  and 
almost  universal  judgment  in  the  other  parts  of  the  prophecy; 
(b)  Israel  as  punished  and  in  Exile  is  presupposed,  and  the  Resto- 
ration is  predicted  (cf.  vss.  15,  18,  20) ;  and  (c)  the  situation  is 
parallel  to  Isa.  40  ff . ;  cf.  also  the  language  (e.g.  ''sing,"  vs.  14, 
''fear  not, "  vs.  16,  cf.  Isa.  42  :  10 ;  41 :  10,  etc.).  Cf.  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

According  to  J.  M.  P.  Smith  (Int.  Crit.)  in  chap.  3  only  vss.  1-5 
(6  f.)  belong  to  Zephaniah ;  all  the  rest  of  the  chap.  =  later  addi- 
tions. 

e.  Practically  all  present-day  scholars  admit  the  presence, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  of  supplemental  verses,  passages  and 
other  additions  in  the  book  of  Jeremiah.  Those  which  are  more 
commonly  recognized  are  referred  to  in  the  notes  to  the  following 
analysis  of  the  prophecy. 


158      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

/.  In  Jer.  1,  according  to  Davidson,  vs.  2  applies  to  this  chap, 
and  vs.  3,  a  later  insertion,  was  probably  meant  to  apply  to  the 
whole  book.     Cf  HDB,  ii.  5726. 

g.  Jer.  3 :  6-18  is  generally  considered  to  be  out  of  place  in  its 
present  position :  (a)  it  interrupts  the  connection  between 
vss.  5  and  19  ;  (6)  in  this  section  Israel  and  Judah  are  contrasted ; 
i.e.  Israel  =  the  Northern  Kingdom ;  but  in  3 : 1-5,  19  £f.,  Israel 
=  Judah ;  and  (c)  the  section,  vss.  6-18,  is  complete  in  itself. 
According  to  Driver  it  belongs  to  the  same  time  as  the  context 
but  is  logically  misplaced. 

According  to  a  number  of  scholars  vss.  17  f.  (others  =  vss.  14- 
18,  or  16-18),  implying  the  Exile  =  a  later  insertion.  Cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  Jer.  2-6  are  commonly  regarded  as  Jeremiah's  first  utter- 
ances, as  they  were  compiled  in  the  5th  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign 
(Jer.  36 :  32,  cf.  vs.  9),  being  originally  delivered  in  Josiah's 
reign.  McCurdy,  however,  thinks  these  chaps,  are  the  substance 
of  addresses  delivered  after  the  accession  of  Jehoiakim,  608  ff. 
B.C.,  no  part  of  them  except  3 : 6-18  (cf.  vs.  6)  belonging  to  the 
reign  of  Josiah.  The  section  4 :  5-6 :  30,  he  holds,  refers  to  the 
expected  Babylonian  invasion  after  the  battle  of  Carchemish, 
c.  605  B.C.  Cf.  his  HPM,  iii.  pp.  175  ff.,  179  f.  (§§  1086  ff.,  1091). 
Cf.  also  Peake's  view  that  31:2-6,  15-22  and  13:1-11  belong 
to  this  period  of  Jeremiah's  career  {i.e.  prior  to  621  b.c.)  ;  cf.  his 
Jer.  i.  60. 

i.  Deut.  14:3-21  is  closely  parallel  to  Lev.  11:2-23  (=  pos- 
sibly H).  Probably  both  parallel  sections  (D  and  H)  are  based 
on  the  same  older  source.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

j.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  Deut.  21-25  only  seven  of  the  laws 
out  of  thirty -five  are  paralleled  in  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  (JE). 
Cf.  what  is  said  on  this  point,  p.  129.     See,  e.g.,  table,  LOT,  74. 

k.  Deut.  27  breaks  the  connection  between  chaps.  26  and  28 
and  is  generally  considered  composite  in  character.  According 
to  Driver  it  is  based  on  a  Deut.  nucleus,  which  has  been  expanded 
by  the  addition  of  later  elements  and  placed  here  in  an  unsuitable 
context  by  a  later  hand.  Chap.  28,  which  is  Deut.  in  style  and 
phraseology,  is  considered  by  Driver  and  many  others  as  a  part 
of  the  original  Code.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.^ 

I.  In  addition  to  Jer.  11:1-8  Peake  assigns  11:18-12:6  to 
the  time  of  Josiah's  reforms  (cf.  his  Jer.).  McCurdy  considers 
11 :  1-8  a  reminiscence  delivered  in  the  time  of  Jehoiakim,  which 
is  to  be  joined  to  the  remainder  of  the  chap.     (HPM,  iii.  pp.  160, 

1  Recent  scholars  are  inclined  to  the  view  that  many  of  the  chaps,  in 
Deut.  12-26,  28  were  expanded  by  insertions  or  editorial  additions,  see 
Introds.  and  Comms.  and  especially  CHB,  Hex.  i.  92  £f. ;  ii.  267  ff. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      159 

n.  2;  187  f.  =  §§  1065,  1100.)  Davidson  thinks  these  vss.  very 
obscure  (HDB,  ii.  573a,  cf.  5706.)  Kent  classifies  them  as  a  later 
tradition  (his  Sermons,  etc.,  186). 

m.  Jer.  17  :  19-27  is  now  assigned  by  many  scholars  to  the  time 
of  Nehemiah  on  the  follo^ving  grounds :  (a)  the  importance 
attached  to  keeping  the  Sabbath,  cf.  Neh.  13  :  15  ff. ;  10 :  31 ; 
Isa.  56 :  2  ff. ;  (6)  the  value  and  emphasis  placed  upon  sacrifice 
(vs.  26),  which  is  out  of  harmony  with  Jeremiah's  disparagement  of 
such  {e.g.  6  :  19  f. ;  7  :  9  f.,  21-26,  etc.)  and  (c)  the  style,  which  is 
*' thoroughly  that  of  Jeremiah,  may  be  due  to  intentional  imita- 
tion, modelled  on  22  : 1  ff."  ;  (cf .  too  Ezek.  20  :  21,  24).  Cf .  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

To  the  latter  part  of  Josiah's  reign  Kent  assigns  Jer.  3 :  6-13 
(14-18),  and  31 :  2-6  (7-14),  15-30.     Cf.  his  Sermons,  etc.,  186  fP. 

n.  It  is  the  view  of  most  recent  commentators  and  critics  that 
the  most  of  Nah.  1 :  2-2 :  2  is  a  later  (post-exihc)  addition  to  the 
original  prophecy.  The  following  are  the  main  reasons  for  this 
view :  (a)  the  general  character  of  the  judgment,  described  in 
this  section  in  the  main,  as  compared  with  the  judgment  on  Nine- 
veh in  particular  in  the  rest  of  the  prophecy;  and  (6)  the  possi- 
bility of  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  half  verses  originally 
here,  which  in  vss.  1-9  (10)  can  be  fairly  well  restored,  —  the 
second  part  of  the  poem  being  either  worked  over  or  displaced 
by  1 :  10  (11)-15  +  2:  2.  The  conclusion  is  that  it  is  more 
likely  that  a  later  editor  would  have  prefixed  this  poem  expressing 
*'the  general  principle  of  God's  avenging  justice,  of  which  the 
destruction  of  Nineveh  was  the  most  striking  concrete  illustra- 
tion," than  that  Nahum  himself  should  have  adopted  a  formal 
acrostic.  All  scholars  agree  that  the  text  in  1 :  13-2  :  2  is  somewhat 
disarranged.  Cf.  a  probable  order,  1 :  12,  14,  2 :  1,  3  ff.  =  refer- 
ence to  Assvria ;  1 :  13,  15  +  2  :  2  =  reference  to  Judah.  Cf . 
arts.  ''Nahum,"  HDB  (Kennedy),  EBi  (Budde),  Introds.  and 
Comms. 

vi.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  capture  of  No-Amon  ( =  Thebes)  of  Egjrpt  by  the  Assyr- 
ians referred  to  in  Nah.  3 : 8  ff .  occurred  c.  664-662  B.C.  Cf. 
Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  Nineveh  was  captured  (cf.  predictions  Nah.  2-3)  by  the 
Umman-Manda  ( =  the  Medes  or  Scythians)  with  the  consent  at 
least  of  the  Chaldeans,  if  not  T\dth  their  actual  cooperation.  The 
date  of  this  event  was  c.  607  or  606  B.C.  Assyria  still  existed  as 
a  power  in  608  B.C.  when  Pharaoh  Necho  marched  against  it 
(cf.  2  Ki.  23 :  29).  In  605  (or  604)  B.C.,  when  the  battle  of  Car- 
chemish  was  fought,  Assyria  had  been  superseded  by  Babylonia 
as  the  representative  power  of  the  East  (cf.  Jer.  46:  2). 


160      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 


SECTION  XI,  608-597  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah,  608-597  b.c. 
Jehoahaz,  608  B.C. 
2   Ki.   23 :  306-34.     His    brief  reign ;    character    and    captivitv 
(cf.2Chr.  36:1-4). 
Cf.   Jer.  22  :  10-12  (Shallum) ;   Ezek.   19  :  1-4.     His  character 
and  fate. 

Jehoiakim,  608-597  b.c. 

2  Ki.  23  :  34a,  35-37.     His  appointment  and  character  (cf .  2  Chr. 
36:3-5). 
24 :  1-7.     Submission  to   Babylon  and  rebelHon,   etc.    (cf . 
2  Chr.  36:6-8). 
Cf.  Jer.  22 :  13-19.     His  character. 

ii.   Literary  productions  of  Jehoiakim^s  reign,  608-597  B.C. 

a.  Prophetic  messages  of  Jeremiah,  c.  608  b.c. 
Chap.  26.     Jerusalem  to  be  destroyed;    the  prophet's  arrest 
and  release. 
7  : 1-9  :  26  +  10  :  17-25.     Messages  of  warning. 
21 :  11-22 :  19.     Appeal    for    justice,    etc.     Lament    for 

the  kings. 
11 :  9-12  :  6.     Consequences  of  national  disloyalty;   con- 
spirators, etc. 
18-20.     Predictions  are  conditional  (chap.  18) ;  the  pot- 
ter's vessel  (chap.  19) ;  Jeremiah's  arrest  (chap.  20). 
h.  Prophetic  messages  of  Hahakkuk,  604-602  b.c.  (or  c.  600  b.c). 
Chaps.  1 :  1-2  :  4.     The  prophet's  remonstrance  and  the  divine 
answers. 
2  :  5-20.     ''Tyranny  is  suicide." 

(3.     Jehovah's  manifestation  of  Himself  for  judgment, 
etc.) 
c.  Prophetic  messages  of  Jeremiah,  604-597  b.c. 
Chap.  25.     Nebuchadrezzar  as  Jehovah's  agent  for  punishing 
Judah,  etc.     c.  604  b.c. 
46-49.     Messages  relating  to  foreign  nations,     c.  604  b.c. 
36 :  1-8.     Baruch  directed  to  write  a  roll  of  Jeremiah's 

prophecies.     604  b.c. 
45.     A  message  of  reassurance  to  Baruch.     604  b.c.^ 
36 :  9-32.     The  reading  of  the  roll  and  its  destruction, 
etc.     c.  603  B.C. 

1  Cf.  the  view  that  Jer.  45  refers  to  the  situation  in  Judea  after  586  b.c. 
(See  chaps.  40-43.)     Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  290. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      161 

14-16.     Great  drought,  etc.  (chap.  14) ;  the  nation's  fate 

fixed  (chap.  15) ;  Jeremiah's  ascetic  Hfe  (chap.  16). 
17  :  1-18.     Fixed  character  of  Judah's  sin ;   trust  in  man 

and  God  contrasted. 
12  :  7-17.     Judah  laid  waste  by  neighboring  peoples,  etc. 

c.  600  B.C. 
35.     Lesson  from  the  fideUty  of  the  Rechabites,   etc. 
c.  600  B.C.  (cf.  598  B.C.  =  Peake). 
d.  Other  literary  activity  which  may  belong  to  this  reign, 
(a)  The  Deut.    (R^)  redaction  of  Judges,  according  to  some 
scholars  =  c.    600  b.c.^     (For  its  chronological  position  in  this 
vol.  see  p.  193,  ii.  3.  c.  (c). 

(6)  The  1st  Deut.  (R^)  redaction  of  the  books  of  Kings,  accord- 
ing to  some  scholars  =  c.  600  b.c.^ 

(For  its  chronological  setting  in  this  vol.  see  p.  166,  ii.  i.) 

iii.  Composition  of  the  history  and  literary  productions  of  Jehoia- 
kim^s  reign  (608-597  b.c),  vnth  chronological  notes. 

a.  2  Ki.  23  :  306-24 :  7  =  an  historical  epitome  incorporated 
from  the  historical  annals  (or  written  on  the  basis  of  this  material) 
by  the  Deut.  compiler.     R^  (or  R°-)  =  23  :  31  f.,  36  f . ;   24  :  2-6.» 

h.  In  2  Chr.  36 :  1-8,  vss.  1-5  are  abridged  somewhat  from 
2  Ki.  23  :  306-37.     Vss.  7  f.  are  largely  Ch. 

c.  Jer.  26  =  biographical,  is  assigned  to  Baruch  by  many 
recent  scholars.  Cf.  also  chaps.  27-29,  34-45  (largely).  See 
p.  105 ;  see  also  p.  193,  ii.  3.  a. 

d.  Jer.  9:23-26  (or  23-24),  which  (together  with  10:1-16) 
interrupts  the  connection  between  9  :  22  and  10  :  17  ff.,  is  regarded 
by  some  scholars  as  a  later  insertion;  by  others  as  probably 
belonging  to  Jeremiah  but  misplaced.  For  the  later  setting  of 
10 :  1-16,  cf.  pp.  180  f .     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  Jer.  19:3-9  (or  5-9),  116-13  seem  based  on  chaps.  7:32- 
8  :  4  and  2  Ki.  21  :  16  ;  22  :  10-13.  Jer.  20  :  14-18  has  hterary 
affinities  with  Job  3  :  1-10.  These  vss.  are  considered  by  some 
as  later  insertions.  Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.  Cf.  also 
18:21-23  as  a  later  addition  (Peake,  Kent,  etc.). 

/.  Different  parts  of  Habak.  2  are  regarded  as  later  additions, 
especially  vss.  12-14,  on  account  of  the  parallels  with  other 
prophets;  cf.  Mic.  3:10;  Jer.  51:58;  Isa.  11:9.  Cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc.^ 

1  Cf.  Gray,  Introd.  59,  61,  63.  ^  cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  73,  191. 

3  Scholars  differ  as  to  the  place  in  Ki.  where  the  first  R^  edition  ends, 
whether  at  2  Ki.  23  :  25,  or  23  :  30  or  24  :  1.     Cf.  p.  61. 

*  Cf.  also  the  view  that  1:  12-2:20  is  composed  of  exilic  and  post- 
exilic  sections;  e.g.  Ward,  Habak.  (Int.  Grit.),  3  ff.  See  also  discussion, 
Gray,  Introd.  222  ff. 


162      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

g.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many  scholars  that  Habak.  3  belongs  to 
a  later  date  than  the  time  of  Habakkuk.  Some  of  the  reasons 
given  are:  (a)  the  liturgical  use  of  the  poem  (cf.  vss.  1,  3,  9, 
13,  ''Selah,"  etc.)  indicates  its  origin  and  use  in  the  time  of  the 
second  Temple,  i.e.  after  516  B.C. ;  (h)  the  fact  that  there  is  noth- 
ing in  the  poem  which  clearly  reflects  the  time  of  the  prophet; 
(c)  the  different  style  and  temper  of  the  poem  from  the  rest  of  the 
prophecy  (cf .  the  fact  that  the  poet  speaks  in  the  name  of  the  na- 
tion, vss.  14,  18  f.  etc.) ;  and  (c)  the  expression  'Hhine  anointed" 
(vs.  13)  apphed  to  the  people  (cf .  Pss.  28  :  8 ;  84  :  9 ;  Dan.  7  :  27, 
etc.),  ''undoubtedly  points  to  a  post-exilic  date,  as  before  the 
Exile  this  denotes  the  king."  On  the  other  side,  cf.  McCurdy  and 
Davison,  who  defend  its  authenticity,  HPM,  iii.  p.  215  (§  1136) ; 
HDB,  iv.  1496.     Cf.  further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  Almost  all  scholars  agree  that  the  present  text  of  Jer.  25 
is  an  expansion  from  its  original  form  by  a  later  writer,  who  had 
the  collected  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  before  him  (together  with 
chaps.  50-51,  to  which  vs.  13  refers).  The  object  of  the  chap, 
was  to  emphasize  the  judgment  which  was  to  come  upon  Babylon. 
The  important  question  is  whether  :  (a)  the  original  prophecy  spoke 
of  the  close  of  this  kingdom  more  clearly  (  =  Hebr.  text  of  chap.  25, 
cf .  E.  V.) ;  or  (6)  less  clearly  ( =  LXX  text,  which  omits  a  num- 
ber of  words  and  vss.) ;  or  (c)  by  further  omission  to  find  no 
reference  to  its  downfall.  The  critical  vss.  are  11-14  and  266, 
which  many  regard  as  later  additions.  Cf.  discussion  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

i.  The  authenticity  of  Jer.  46-49  largely  or  in  part  has  been 
questioned  by  several  recent  scholars,  partly  (a)  on  the  ground 
that  Jeremiah  was  more  concerned  with  the  sin  of  Judah  and  its 
fate,  and  that  it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  he  would  have  delivered 
such  long  prophecies  against  nations  which,  with  the  exception 
of  Egypt,  had  no  significance  to  him  or  his  time;  and  partly 
(6)  on  the  ground  that  several  sections  seem  closely  based  on  other 
prophecies.  Davidson's  conclusion  is  that  the  most  that  can  be 
assumed  is,  that  there  is  a  nucleus  of  Jeremiah's  utterances  in 
these  chaps.,  and  that  there  is  no  doubt  much  which  may  belong 
to  post-exilic  times.  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  5736,  5756  (Davidson)  and 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

j.  For  parallehsm  between  Jer.  49  :  7-22  (on  Edom)  and  Obadiah 
and  inferences,  cf.  pp.  213  ff.^ 

k.  Jer.  36,  35  and  45  are  among  the  chaps,  which  many  recent 
scholars  assign  to  Baruch.     See  p.  105 ;  see  also  p.  193,  ii.  3.  a. 

1  Note  also  that  Jer.  48,  espec.  vss.  5,  29-38  (see  R.  V.  marg.),  is  par- 
allel in  many  references  and  reminiscences  to  Isa.  15-16.  Cf.  on  these 
chaps,  pp.  95  f.,  4.  c. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      163 

I.  The  prophecies  and  sections  of  Jeremiah  which  made  up  the 
roll  referred  to  in  Jer.  36,  according  to  the  chronological  arrange- 
ment of  this  volume,  included  chaps.  1-6  ;  11  :  1-8  ;  (17  :  19-27?) ; 
26  ?  7  : 1-9  :  26  +  0  :  17-25  ;  21  :  11-22  :  19  ;  11 :  9-12  :  6  ;  18-20 ; 
25  (in  its  original  form) ;  46-49  (in  part  ?) ;  45.  Peake  following 
the  LXX  of  36 :  2  reading  ''Jerusalem"  for  ''Israel"  thinks  that 
prophecies  relating  to  the  Northern  Kingdom  may  not  have  been 
included  in  this  collection.     Cf.  his  Jer.  i.  58.     See  also  pp.  86  f.  a. 

iv.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  dates  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  reign,  who  is  mentioned  in 
2  Ki.  24:  1,  etc.,  are  important,  as  different  Biblical  events  are 
svnchronized  with  the  years  of  his  reign  or  dated  by  them,  e.g. 
Jer.  25  :  1 ;  46  :  2 ;  2  Ki.  24  :  126 ;  25  :  8,  etc.  The  dates  of  his 
reign  are  known  by  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy  (cf.  Ap.  C,  p.  349), 
and  different  scholars  agree  quite  closely  on  the  years  assigned  to 
it,  e.g.  605(604)-562(561)  b.c.     Cf.  also  n.  e  below. 

h.  There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  dates  of  Jehoia- 
kim's  submission  to  the  Chaldeans  and  subsequent  rebeUion 
(2  Ki.  24 :  1).  Western  Asia  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Chaldeans 
when  Nebuchadrezzar  their  crown  prince  defeated  Pharaoh  Necho 
of  Egypt  at  Carchemish.  According  to  Jer.  46  :  2  this  was  in  the 
4th  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign.  Authorities  vary  between  605 
and  604  b.c.  for  the  date  of  this  battle.  Jehoiakim  most  prob- 
ably submitted  to  Nebuchadrezzar  soon  after  this  event.  In 
support  of  this  view  it  is  held  that  the  fast  referred  to  in  Jer. 
36 :  9,  29,  in  the  5th  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  i.e.  c.  603  b.c, 
may  have  been  appointed  on  account  of  the  approach  of  the  Chal- 
deans. According  to  this  reckoning  his  rebellion  after  3  years 
of  submission  =  601  or  600  B.C.  Many  scholars  think  that  for 
a  number  of  years  Judah  was  ravaged  by  Syrians,  etc.  (2  Ki. 
24 :  2),  incited  by  the  Chaldeans,  before  the  latter  brought  their 
main  force  and  captured  Jerusalem  (vss.  10  ff.).  Cf.  Comms.  in 
loc,  etc. 

c.  In  2  Chr.  36 : 6  f .  the  Chronicler  seems  to  have  confused 
Jehoiakim  with  his  successor  Jehoiachin  (cf.  2  Ki.  24 :  15,  13). 

d.  Davidson  places  Jer.  7  before  26.  The  latter  he  considers 
the  historical  comment  on  the  former,  and  dates  it  immediately 
after  Josiah's  death.  Cf.  for  reasons  HDB,  ii.  5726.  Cf.  also 
Peake,  Kent,  etc. 

e.  The  battle  of  Carchemish  referred  to  in  Jer.  46 :  2  as  occur- 
ring in  the  4th  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  according  to  Berosus 
(as  cited  by  Josephus  c.  Ap.  i.  19  ;  Jew.  Ant.  x.  11)  fell  on  the  last 
year  of  Nabopolassar's  reign.  The  dates  assigned  to  the  battle 
vary  between  605  and  604  b.c.     Cf.  above,  n.  6. 


164      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

/.  The  occasion  mentioned,  Jer.  47  :  1,  is  obscure,  but  it  is  thought 
by  some  to  refer  to  a  capture  of  Gaza  by  the  Egyptians  (the  record 
of  which  is  unknown),  either  on  their  retreat  from  Carchemish, 
c.  604  B.C.,  or  possibly  later,  c.  588  B.C.,  in  connection  with  the 
movements  mentioned  in  37  :  5.  Vs.  1,  it  may  be  added,  is  omitted 
in  the  LXX.     Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 

SECTION  XII,  597-586  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  Judah,  597-586  B.C. 
Jehoiachin,  597  B.C. 
2  Ki.  24 :  65,  8-16.     Capture  of  Jerusalem  and  deportation  of 
leading  citizens,  etc.     (Cf.  2  Chr.  36:9-10a). 
Cf.  Ezek.  19  :  5-9.     Jehoiachin's  fate. 

Zedekiah,  597-586  b.c. 
2  Ki.  24 :  17-20a.     His  appointment  and    character   (cf.  2  Chr. 
36:106-12;  Jer.  52  :  l-3a). 
24  :  206-25  :  7.    Siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem  (cf .  2  Chr.  36  : 
13-16  +  Jer.  52  :  36-11 ;  cf.  38  :  28^39  :  7).      589-586  b.c. 
25:8-21.     Burning  of  the  city  and  Temple;    deportation 
of   citizens  to  Babylon   [cf .  2   Chr.  36 :  17-21 ;    Jer.  52 : 
12-27  (28-29) ;   cf.  39  :  8-9].     586  b.c. 

ii.  Literary  productions  of  the  reigns  of  Jehoiachin  and  Zedekiah, 
597-586  B.C. 

a.  Prophetic  messages  of  Jeremiah  in  Jehoiachin's  reign,  597  B.C. 
Chap.  13.     Sj^mbol  of  the  linen  girdle  and  its  application,  etc. 

22 :  20-30.     Lament  over   the  nation ;    judgment   upon 
Jehoiachin. 
6.  ^'  The  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah,"  c.  597 
B.C.     Cf.  p.  60  (/). 

c.  Prophetic  messages  and  experiences  of  Jeremiah  in  Zedekiah' s 
reign  to  the  king's  rebellion  against  the  Chaldeans  (2  Ki.  24 :  17  ff.), 
597-588  (587)  b.c. 

Chap.  24.     Symbohcal  vision  of  the  two  baskets  of  figs.     c. 

597  B.C. 
23.     Judah's  unworthy  civic  leaders,  prophets  and  priests, 

etc.     597-593  b.c. 
27-29.     Babylonian  dominion  to  remain  over  Judah  and 

surrounding  countries.     593  B.C. 
51 :  59-64.     Message  sent  to  Babylon  that  it  will  perish. 

593  B.C. 

d.  Prophetic  messages  of  Ezekiel  in  the  fifth  year  of  Zedekiah's 
reign,  June-July,  592  b.c. 


BIBLICAL  OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM     165 

Chaps.  1 : 1-2 :  7.     Vision  of  the  Cherubim    and  the  wheels ; 
the  prophet's  call,  etc. 

2  :  8-3  :  21.     Symbohcal  eating  of  the  roll  of  a  book,  etc. 

3  :  22-7  :  27.     Symbolical  messages  predicting  the  over- 

throw of  Jerusalem. 
e.  Prophetic  messages  of  Ezekiel  in  the  sixth  year  of  Zedekiah's 
reign,  591  b.c. 

Chaps.  8-11.     Further  symbolic  representations  of  Jerusalem's 
impending  destruction.     Aug.-Sept.  591  b.c. 
12-19.     The  moral  necessity  of  the  city's  destruction. 
591  B.C. 
/.  Prophetic  messages  of  Ezekiel  in  the  seventh  year  of  Zedekiah's 
reign,  590  b.c. 

Chaps.  20-23.     Further  predictions  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 

July- Aug.  590  b.c. 
g.  Prophetic  messages  and  experiences  of  Jeremiah  connected  with 
the  revolt,  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem,  588-586  b.c.  (2  Ki.  25  : 1  ff.). 
Chap.  21 : 1-10.     The   prophet's   reply  to   Zedekiah's   appeal, 
etc.     c.  587  B.C. 
34.     Prediction  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem;    treat- 
ment of  Hebrew  slaves,  etc.     c.  587  b.c. 
37.     Jeremiah  requested  to  pray  for  the  city ;  his  arrest, 

etc. 
38 :  l-28a.     Jeremiah  cast  into  a  dungeon ;    his  rescue, 

etc. 
39 :  15-18.     Message  of  promise  to  the  Ethiopian  slave, 
his  rescuer. 

32.  Jeremiah  purchases  an  inheritance;     its  prophetic 
significance,     c.  587  b.c. 

33.  The  doom  of  the  nation  and  its  final  restoration, 
etc.     c.  587  B.C. 

30-31.     Messages    relating    to    restoration  from   Exile, 
c.  586  B.C. 
h.  Prophetic  messages  of  Ezekiel  in  Babylonia  during  the  revolt, 
siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem,  588-586  b.c.  (2  Ki.  25:  1  ff.). 
Chap.  24.     The  parable  of  the  rusted  caldron,  etc.     Dec. -J an. 
588-587  B.C. 
29 :  1-16.     Prediction  of  the  destruction  of  Egypt,  etc. 

Dec-Jan.  587-586  b.c. 
30:1-19.     Egypt  to  be  laid   waste   by  invasion,   etc. 

c.  586(?)  B.C. 
30 :  20-26.     Egypt  to  be  totally  destroyed.     Mch.-Apr. 

586  B.C. 
31.     Pharaoh,  the  sheltering  cedar  tree,  to  be  destroyed, 
etc.     May-June,  586  b.c. 


166      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

i.  First  Deuteronomic  (R^)  edition  of  the  Books  of  Kings  (extend- 
ing  as  far  as  2  KL  23  :  30),  597-586  b.c.     See  pp.  60  f. 

j.  The  Law  of  Holiness  (Lev.  17-26).  This  Code  doubtless 
represents  much  legislation  of  pre-exilic  times,  and  according  to  a 
number  of  scholars  it  was  probably  codified  shortly  before  the 
Exile;  e.g.  Driver,  Moore,  Kennedy,  etc.^  For  its  chronological 
setting  in  this  vol.  cf.  pp.  184  If.,  193,  ii.  1. 

k.  Psalms  assigned  to  the  pre-exilic  period,  especially  the  time  of 
the  late  monarchy,  with  different  degrees  of  probability. 

(a)  The  different  psalms  in  which  reference  is  made  to  the  kings 
are  assigned  by  many  scholars  to  the  pre-exiHc  period :  Pss.  2 ; 
20;   21;   28;  45;   61;   63;   72  =  those  usually  included.^ 

(6)  The  following  psalms  according  to  Briggs  belong  to  the 
period  of  the  late  monarchy  =  2 ;  19:1-6;  28 ;  36  :  1-4 ;  46 ; 
52;  54;   55:1-8;   60:1-5,106-12;   62;   72;   and  87. ^ 

(c)  The  following  are  those  assigned  to  this  period  by  Kirk- 
patrick  =  42-44 ;  58;  73(?);  84;  31  (possibly  by  Jeremiah); 
81  (possibly  Josiah's  reign,  639  ff.  B.C.);  69  (597-586  b.c,  or 
exihc).^ 

(d)  A  number  of  psalms  have  been  attributed  to  Jeremiah. 
Such  conclusions  can  hardly  be  more  than  conjectural.  The 
following  are  those  more  commonly  assigned  to  him  =  22 ;  31 ; 
35;   38;   40;   55;   69;   71;   78-79,  etc.^ 

I.  Possibly  the  original  book  of  Job.  Among  those  holding  that 
the  present  book  of  Job  is  based  on  an  earher  production  (of  which 
all  that  is  preserved  is  found  in  Job,  chaps.  1-2 ;  42  :  7-17),  some 
date  it  from  the  closing  years  of  the  monarchy,  e.g.  600-586  b.c. 
Cf.  p.  271,  iii.  /. 

m.  The  Last  Words  of  David,  2  Sam.  23  : 1-7,  according  to  Kent  = 
"  close  to  the  Babylonian  exile  "  or  even  later.  ^ 

iii.    Composition  of  the  history  and  literary  productions,  597-586 

B.C. 

a.  2  Ki.  24 : 8-25 :  21  was  incorporated  from  the  historical 
annals  (or  written  on  the  basis  of  this  material)  by  the  Deut. 
compiler,  probably  R^l  Note  espec.  the  marks  of  this  editor  in 
24  :  8  f.,  18-20 ;  25  :  16  f.  (or  =  R^).  According  to  some  scholars 
24 :  13  f.  =  a  later  parallel  to  vss.  15  f. 

1  LOT,  145  f.,  149  fiP. ;  Driver,  etc.,  Lev.  (SBOT),  101.  EBi,  iii.  2787, 
2791  (Moore).     Moore,  LOT,  54.     Kennedy,  Lev.  28,  119,  etc. 

2  Cf.  LOT,  385.  Bennett,  Introd.  144.  McFadyen,  Introd.  249,  etc. 
Cf.  contra,  Gray,  Introd.  136  f. 

3  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxxix  ff. 
*  Kirkpatrick,  Psal.  in  loc. 

5  LOT,  382  f.     McFadyen,  Introd.  250.     EBi,  iii.  3961,  n.  3,  eto. 

6  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  67.    Cf.  Cheyne's  view,  p.  197,  ii.  5.  e. 


BIBLICAL  OUTLINE   PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      167 

h.  In  2  Chr.  36 :  9-21,  vss.  126,  136-16  (largely),  206-21  =  Ch. 
Vss.  9  f .  =  a  mere  summary  of  2  Ki.  24 : 8-16 ;  and  vss.  17-21 
are  abridged  from  2  Ki.  25  :  8-21. 

c.  Jer.  52  forms  an  historical  appendix  to  the  collection  of 
Jeremiah's  prophecies.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  agreement 
among  scholars  that  it  was  excerpted  from  the  book  of  Kings 
(=  2  Ki.  24:  18-25:30,  except  25:22-26).  Vss.  28-30  (not  in 
LXX)  are  additional. 

d.  Jer.  39  is  also  based  on  Kings.  Vss.  4-13  of  this  chap,  are 
wanting  in  the  LXX,  and  some  {e.g.  Driver)  doubt  if  they  formed 
a  part  of  the  original  chapter.  So  vss.  1  f .  may  be  an  interpolation. 
Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  Jer.  13 :  26  f.  is  not  considered  by  some  scholars  a  worthy 
conclusion  to  this  chap.  (vs.  26  is  a  prosaic  repetition  of  vs.  226 ; 
and  vs.  27  is  a  short  summary  of  some  of  Jeremiah's  harsher  accu- 
sations). McCurdy  thinks  it  better  to  regard  these  vss.  as  an 
addition  by  a  later  writer  ignorant  of  elegiac  measure.  Cf .  HPM, 
iii.  p.  223,  n.  1  (§  1143)  and  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  a  number  of  scholars  limit  the  vss.  in 
chap.  13  which  belong  to  Jehoiachin's  reign  to  18  f.,  the  remainder 
of  the  chap,  being  assigned  earher  to  the  reigns  of  Josiah  and 
Jehoiakim.  Cf.  Peake  in  loc. ;  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  229.  LOT, 
256. 

/.  Jer.  27-29  +  51 :  59-64  are  among  the  chaps,  which  recent 
scholars  assign  to  Baruch.  They  are  largely  biographical.  Cf. 
p.  105 ;  see  also  p.  193,  ii.  3.  a. 

g.  The  LXX  text  of  Jer.  27-29  is  considerably  shorter  than  the 
Hebr.  (  =  E.  V.),  and  some  scholars  regard  it  as  preferable.  Note 
especially  that  in  chap.  29,  vss.  16-20  (parallel  largely  to  24  :  8-10), 
which  break  the  connection  between  vss.  15  and  21,  are  wanting 
in  the  LXX.  For  comparison  and  discussion  of  the  two  texts, 
cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. ;  also  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew. 
Churchy  104  ff. 

h.  Jer.  34,  37,  38 ;  39 :  15-18  are  among  the  chaps,  of  Jer. 
(  =  biographical)  whose  authorship  has  been  assigned  to  Baruch 
by  recent  scholars.     Cf.  p.  105 ;  see  also  p.  193,  ii.  3.  a. 

i.  It  is  thought  by  many  scholars  that  at  least  an  exihc  or  post- 
exihc  coloring  has  been  given  to  Jer.  30-33  by  editorial  additions. 
Opinions,  however,  differ  as  to  what  extent  this  was  carried. 
Davidson  thinks  these  chaps,  once  formed  a  separate  collection 
(cf.  30 :  2),  and  that  the  subject  was  one  which  invited  expansion, 
though  much  in  chap.  31  is  original.  Usually  Jeremiah  uses  the 
term  ''Israel"  and  ''Ephraim"  (twice  "house  of  Jacob,"  2:4; 
5 :  20) ;  it  is  only  in  these  chaps,  that  the  simple  name  "Jacob" 
occurs  (e.g.  30:  7,  10,  etc.).     Much  besides  reflects  the  ideas  and 


168     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

language  of  Isa.  40  ff.  The  sections  especially  questioned  are  : 
33  :  1-16,  17-26  (vss.  14-26  are  wanting  in  the  LXX) ;  30  :  10  f . ; 
31 :  35-37.  Cf .  further  HDB,  ii.  5736  (Davidson) ;  also  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  siege  of  Jerusalem  extended  from  the  9th  year  of  Zed- 
ekiah's  reign,  the  10th  mo.,  to  the  11th  year  of  his  reign,  the  4th 
mo.  (2  Ki.  25:1  ff.,  8).  Probably  the  Babylonian  method  of 
beginning  the  year  in  the  spring  (March- April),  which  was  adopted 
b}^  the  Jews  in  exilic  and  post-exiUc  times  is  here  employed. 
The  length  of  the  siege  was  thus  about  a  year  and  a  half,  i.e. 
Dec-Jan.,  588-587  to  June-July,  586  b.c.  Note  the  burning  of  the 
city  and  Temple  in  the  5th  mo.  =  July- Aug.  586  b.c.  (vs.  8). 

b.  In  Jer.  52 :  28  there  is  reference  to  captives  being  carried 
away  in  the  7th  year  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  reign,  c.  598  or  597  B.C. 
This  date,  however,  is  supposed  by  a  number  of  scholars  since 
Ewald's  time  to  have  originally  read  the  17th  year  of  his  reign, 
i.e.  c.  588  b.c.  Hence  in  the  outhne  (p.  164)  Jer.  52  :  28f.is  placed 
in  connection  with  the  final  siege  of  the  city.  Cf.  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

^  c.  While  Jer.  27-29  as  a  whole  belongs  to  the  4th  year  of  Zede- 
kiah's  reign,  some  portions  according  to  their  headings  date 
earlier  (e.g.  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  cf.  27  : 1,  3,  12,  20).  Schol- 
ars differ  as  to  this  point,  however.  Some  think  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  may  be  apphed  to  the  4th  year  (cf.  28  : 1).  According 
to  some  scholars  chap.  29  is  prior  to  chaps.  27-28,  i.e,  596-595  b.c. 
(Peake ;  cf.  Kent).     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  The  date  of  Jer.  51 :  59-64  is  found  in  vs.  59.  Some  scholars, 
however,  place  this  section  with  50:1-51:58  (pp.  179  f.  c). 
Others,  as  Driver,  McCurdy,  Cornill,  Peake,  etc.,  accept  the  Bibhcal 
chronology  here.  Many  also  hold  that  these  vss.  are  a  still  later 
addition.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  The  date  given  above  for  Ezek.  12-19  is  that  of  Davidson, 
who  thinks  these  chaps,  were  probably  composed  a  little  later 
than  the  preceding  section  but  in  the  same  year.  Cf.  his  Ezek. 
p.  xi. 

/.  As  Ezek.  17  assumes  the  disloyalty  of  Judah,  which  led 
Nebuchadrezzar  to  send  an  army  thither,  c.  588-587  b.c.  (cf. 
2  Ki.  25 :  1  ff.),  Davidson  assigns  this  chap,  a  year  or  two  before 
that  time  =  c.  590  b.c.  Cf.  his  Ezek.  in  loc.  Gray,  Introd.  201. 
Kent  =  588  b.c.   (Sermons,  etc.,  262). i 

r-To  ^^'  ^^^y's  ^^^  that  Ezekiel  wrote  his  prophecy  as  a  whole  after 
572  B.C.  (cf.  40:  1)  or  570  b.c.  (cf.  29:  17),  on  the  basis  of  records  pre- 
served by  him  *'of  his  teaching  at  specific  times  in  his  career."     This, 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    PERIOD   OF   DIVIDED   KINGDOM      169 

g.  It  is  the  opinion  of  several  scholars  that  the  prediction  against 
Ammon  (Ezek.  21 :  28-32)  is  a  later  passage  than  the  rest  of  the 
chap.,  and  is  placed  here  and  not  among  the  prophecies  relating 
to  foreign  nations  (chaps.  25  ff .)  because  of  the  previous  reference 
in  this  chap,  to  Ammon  (cf.  vs.  20).  Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms. 
in  loc. 

h.  While  Jer.  34  is  assigned  above  to  a  date  soon  after  21 : 1-10 
(note  the  fact  that  Lachish  and  Azelah  are  not  yet  taken,  vs.  7), 
some  prefer  to  place  it  in  the  second  part  of  the  siege  {i.e.  after 
the  return  of  the  Chaldeans  to  invest  Jerusalem  from  their  tem- 
porary \\dthdrawal  to  meet  the  Egyptian  forces  (cf.  34 :  21  f . ; 
37  :  5,  11).     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

i.  Jer.  30-31  may  with  probabihty  be  placed  after  chaps.  32-33 
as  they  relate  to  the  Restoration.     Cf.  the  order  above,  p.  165,  ii.  g. 

j.  The  date  of  Ezek.  24  =  the  day  in  which  Jerusalem  was 
invested  by  the  Chaldeans  (cf.  vs.  1  with  2  Ki.  25  :  1).  The  date 
of  29  :  1-16  =  6  or  7  mos.  before  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (cf.  vs.  1 
with  2  Ki.  25  :  3  ff.).  The  date  of  Ezek.  30  :  20  ff.  =  3  mos.  before 
Jerusalem  was  captured  (cf.  vs.  20  with  2  Ki.  25 : 3  ff.).  The 
date  of  Ezek.  31  =  5  weeks  before  its  capture  (cf.  vs.  1  with  2  Ki. 
25:3ff.). 

according  to  Gray,  accounts  for  the  allusion  in  17  :  15  ff.  to  an  event  after 
591  B.C.,  the  date  assigned  to  chaps.  12-19.  See  his  Introd.  201.  Note 
that  Kent  assigns  chap.  12  and  other  sections  to  588  b.c.  See  his  Ser- 
mons, etc.,  254  ff. 


VIII.  A.  The  Period  of  the  Exile.  Introductory  and 
Explanatory  Notes  to  the  History  and  Literature  op 
THIS  Period 

The  history  and  literature  relating  to  the  period  of  the 
Exile  are  found  in  brief  historical  and  biographical  sections 
in  Kings  and  Jeremiah ;  Cf.  Jer.  43 : 8-13  and  44 : 1-30  = 
prophecy;  Ezekiel  25-48  in  large  part;  Isaiah  40-55; 
Isaiah  21:1-10;  13:1-14:23;  Jeremiah  50:1-51:58; 
10  : 1-16 ;  Leviticus  17-26 ;  Lamentations ;  different  psalms 
and  poems.  All  these  literary  productions  had  their  origin 
in  this  period.^ 

1.  Historical  Writings 

The  direct  historical  information  for  this  period  is  scanty. 
What  Biblical  history  there  is  relates  almost  entirely  to 
the  years  immediately  following  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Chaldeans  in  586  b.c.  The  historical  background 
for  the  period  has  to  be  derived  from  outside  sources. 
The  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  Exiles  during  those 
years,  so  far  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  is  obtained  indirectly 
from  the  Biblical  literature. 

A.  2  Kings  25:  22-30.  Of  this  section  vss.  22-26  seem 
clearly  a  much  shortened  account  of  events  described  in 
Jer.  40 :  7-43 :  6,  and  were  evidently  derived  by  the  exilic 
editor  (R^^)  of  the  books  of  Kings  from  this  source.  The 
remaining  verses,  27-30,  may  contain  facts  personally  known 
to  this  editor. 

B.  Jer.  39  :  10-14 ;  40  : 1-43  :  7 ;  52  :  28-34. 

a.  Jer.  39 :  10-14.  Of  this  section,  cf.  vs.  10  with  2  Ki. 
25 :  12. 

Cf .  the  fact  previously  noted  (p.  167,  in.  d.)  that  Jer.  39  :  4-13  is 
wanting  in  the  LXX.  According  to  some  scholars,  vss.  11-14 
and  40 :  1-6  =  a  Midrash.^ 

^  For  other  literary  productions  (including  R^^  redactions  of  earlier 
historical  writings),  cf.  pp.  193  f.,  ii.  3 ;  pp.  196  f.,  ii.  4-5. 

2  Cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  328.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  286  f.  For 
definition  of  "Midrash,"  cf.  p.  66, 

170 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE       171 

h.  Chaps.  40 : 1-43 :  7  are  clearly  based  upon  first-hand 
sources,  i.e.  records  by  Jeremiah  or  more  likely  by  Baruch. 
The  events  described  belong  to  the  years  immediately  follow- 
ing the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.c.  (cf.  40 : 1,  7 ; 
41 : 1). 

c.  Chap.  52 :  28-34.  Of  these  verses,  31-34  are  parallel 
to  2  Ki.  25 :  27-30,  and  were  probably  derived  from  the 
book  of  Kings  by  the  compiler  of  Jeremiah.  The  source  of 
the  remaining  verses,  28-30,  is  unknown.  These  three 
verses  are  wanting  in  the  LXX.^ 

2.  Prophetical  Writings 

A.  Jeremiah  43  :  8-13  and  44  : 1-30.  These  prophetic 
messages  belong  between  586  and  c.  581  (?)  e.g.,  being  con- 
nected with  the  historical  section,  chaps.  40 :  1-43 : 7. 
Cf.  above  l.B.b. 

B.  Portions  of  Ezekiel.  The  following  sections  and  chap- 
ters belong  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  586  e.g. 

The  year  from  which  these  prophecies  are  dated,  as  in  the 
previous  part  of  the  prophecy  (cf.  pp.  114  f.),  is  597  b.c,  when  the 
first  body  of  captives  was  taken  into  Exile.  The  months  indicated 
below  are  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  Babylonian  year, 
which  began  in  March-April,  was  adopted  by  the  prophet  in  his 
reckoning.     For  the  Babylonian  months  cf.  p.  205. 

a.  Chaps.  25-28.  These  prophecies  against  different  for- 
eign nations,  predicting  that  a  like  fate  to  that  of  Jeru- 
salem is  to  befall  them,  belong  immediately  after  586  e.g. 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  is  assumed  in  these  chapters 
(cf.  25:3,8,  12,  15;  26:lf.).2 

h.  Chap.  32.  Feb.-March  (?)  585  (or  584)  e.g.  (cf.  vss.  1 
and  17). 3 

c.  Chaps.  33-39.     Only  one  date  is  given  in  this  section, 

1  Cf.  in  addition  to  the  references  to  authorities  on  Jeremiah  given, 
p.  Ill,  n.i,  espec.  on  the  above  sections,  LOT,  271;  Bennett,  Introd. 
206  f.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  44  f.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  81  f.,  85.  HDB, 
ii.  5736  (Davidson).  EBi,  ii.  2378  f.,  2386  (Schmidt).  McFadyen, 
Introd.  151  f.,  156.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  328  ff.  Cheyne,  Jer.  Life 
and  Times,  182  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  298,  n.  1.  Sanders, 
etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  87  ff. 

2  On  the  date  in  26 :  1,  see  p.  192,  iv.  d. 

3  On  the  dates  in  32 :  1,  17,  cf.  further  p.  192,  iv.  e. 


172      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

viz.  Dec-Jan.  585-584  b.c.  (33 :  21).  As  this  refers  to  the 
first  word  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  reaching  the  Exiles, 
many  scholars  think  that  it  is  a  year  too  late,  and  that  the 
correct  date  is  Dec- J  an.  586-585  b.c,  i.e.  about  six  months 
after  the  downfall  of  the  city  (cf.  2  Ki.  25 : 2  f.).  It  is  not 
certain  that  this  year  applies  to  all  parts  of  this  section, 
though  it  is  evident  that  the  whole  falls  in  the  period  after 
586  B.C.  (e.g.  chaps.  34;  37;  36:16  ff. ;  35).  The  time 
beginning  immediately  after  586  b.c.  and  extending  possibly 
over  a  decade  may  be  taken  as  the  historical  setting  of  these 
chapters. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  Syriac  and  some  Hebrew  MSS.  read 
the  11th  year  instead  of  the  12th  in  33:21.  The  numbers  11 
and  12  are  easily  confused  in  the  Hebrew. 

''The  dates  throughout  the  book  are  little  more  than  rubrics 
of  a  very  general  kind,  under  which,  in  default  of  more  precise 
details,  a  number  of  discourses,  extending  over  considerable  periods 
have  been  grouped,"  according  to  Davidson.^  He  takes  the  date 
in  33  :  21  to  indicate  the  time  generally  to  which  the  whole  seven 
chapters  belong. 

d.  Chaps.  40-48  belong  to  March- April,  572  b.c.  (cf .  40 : 1). 

e.  Chap.  29  :  17-21.     March-April,  570  b.c.  (cf.  vs.  17) .2 

C.  D enter o-Isaiah  =  Isaiah,  chaps.  40-55.  It  is  now  a 
matter  of  common  agreement  among  scholars  that  Isaiah 
40-66  form  a  group  of  anonymous  prophetic  messages, 
attached  to  the  collected  prophecies  of  Isaiah ;  and  that  of 
this  section  it  seems  reasonable  to  assign  chapters  40-55 
to  the  closing  years  of  the  Exile.  The  grounds  of  this  view 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows. 

First,  the  historical  presuppositions  of  these  chapters. 
They  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  the  certain  proph- 
ecies of  Isaiah,  (a)  Babylon  and  not  Assyria  is  the 
dominant  power  (cf.  43  :  14  ;  48  :  14,  20  ;  chap.  47),  and  the 
Jews  are  suffering  in  Exile  from  its  oppression  (cf .  42 :  22, 
25 ;  43  :  28,  R.  V.  marg. ;  47  :  6 ;  52  :  5,  etc.).  (6)  Jerusalem 
has  been  destroyed  and  Palestine  lies  waste  (cf .  44 :  266, 
286 ;  49 : 8,  19,  etc) ;  (c)  but  while  Babylon  still  stands 
Cyrus  the  Persian  has  begun  his  conquering  career   (cf. 

1  Cf.  Davidson,  Ezek.  238. 

2  For  list  of  authorities  on  Ezekiel,  cf.  p.  116  n.  ^ 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE    EXILE       173 

41:2^),  who  is  Jehovah's  appointed  servant,  and  whose 
mission  is  to  overthrow  Babylon  and  restore  the  Jews  to 
their  own  land  (41  :  25  ;  44  :  28  ;  45  :  1-6,  13  ;  46  :  11) ;  and 
(d)  the  period  of  punishment  in  Exile  is  nearing  its  end,  — 
the  day  of  dehverance  is  at  hand  (cf .  40  :  2  ;  48  :  20  ;  49  :  14 
ff. ;  51 :  17,  etc.)-  This  historical  background  is  that  of  the 
years  549-538  b.c. 

Cyrus  began  his  conquering  career  c.  550  b.c.  In  539  (or  538)  b.c. 
Babylon  fell  before  his  power,  and  in  the  following  year  probably, 
being  granted  permission,  a  body  of  Jewish  exiles  returned  home 
(cf.  Ezra  1).  Some  would  limit  the  background  of  the  prophecy 
between  c.  546  or  545  b.c.  (when  Cyrus  captured  Sardis)  and  539- 
538  B.C. 

From  the  analogy  of  prophecy  the  historical  setting  of  this 
section  of  Isaiah  is  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  for  assigning 
it  to  the  close  of  the  Exile.  If  Isaiah  40-55  had  formed  in  the 
Canon  a  collection  by  itself  as  an  anonymous  production  (as  it 
really  is,  for  there  is  no  hint  in  the  chapters  who  the  WTiter  is, 
—  certainly  no  claim  that  Isaiah  is  the  author),  it  is  not  probable 
that  there  would  have  been  any  question  as  to  assigning  it  to  this 
date,  since  a  prophet's  message  is  primarily  to  his  own  times. 
The  conditions  and  circumstances  of  a  prophet's  own  age  are 
always  reflected  in  his  messages ;  and  the  promises  for  the  future 
and  predictions  of  judgment  always  rest  on  the  historic  basis  of 
the  period  to  which  he  belongs,  having  a  practical  bearing  on 
present  needs.  In  this  important  particular  the  evidence  is  all 
in  favor  of  the  end  of  the  Exile  as  the  date  of  these  chaps,  in 
Isaiah. 

"There  is  a  curious  fact  in  connection  with  the  book  of  Isaiah 
which  may  not  be  without  significance.  The  present  order  of  the 
three  great  prophets  was  not  the  order  in  which  the  scribes  origi- 
nally placed  them.  The  oldest  order  was  —  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Isaiah.  This  may  suggest  that  the  scribes  were  conscious  that 
elements  were  contained  in  the  Book  of  Isaiah  of  a  later  date  than 
the  prophet  Ezekiel."  ^ 

In  reply  to  those  who  support  the  Isaianic  authorship  of  this 
section  on  the  ground  that  the  prophet  projected  himself  into  the 
period  of  the  Exile,  and  thus  described  future  events  as  already 
realized,  it  is  maintained  that  in  all  such  cases  in  prophetic  utter- 
ances the  transferences  are  but  temporary,  the  prophet  plainly 
indicating  in  the  context  his  own  age  {e.g.  Isa.  5  :  13-15  ;  23  :  1,  14). 

1  Davidson,  Isa.  (TB),  xxiii.  LOT,  pp.  i.  f.  (  =  Talmud  order  of  proph. 
books).     EBi,  i.  650  (Budde).     Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  237  ff.,  293,  etc. 


174      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

If  Isa.  40  ff.  is  a  production  of  Isaiah,  there  is  no  other  0.  Test, 
parallel,  in  which  a  prophet  ignores  his  own  age  and  transports 
himself  wholly  into  a  distant  future  and  gathers  around  him  ''all 
the  elements  of  a  definite  and  complex  historical  situation  and 
forecasts  from  it  a  future  still  more  distant."  While  both  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel  (cf.  Jer.  30-33 ;  Ezek.  16-17)  predict  the  Exile, 
which  is  to  be  followed  by  restoration,  both  regard  it  as  still 
future.  In  Isa.  40  ff.,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Exile  is  not  predicted 
but  described  as  an  event  realized.  It  is  the  release  and  restoration 
which  are  predicted  [cf.  references  above  under  (c)].  It  is  thus 
seen  that  the  element  of  prediction  is  not  eliminated  by  assigning 
an  exilic  date  to  Isa.  40  ff. ;  for  it  contains  as  clear  a  case  of  pre- 
diction as  is  found  in  Isaiah's  utterances  in  reference  to  the  defeat 
of  Sennacherib  (cf .  Isa.  29  :  7  f . ;  30 :  27  ff. ;  31 :  4  f . ;  14  :  24- 
27,  etc.). 

Secondly:  the  evidence  from  the  historical  background 
for  the  late,  exilic  date  is  strengthened  by  a  study  of  the 
phraseology,  style  and  religious  conceptions  of  this  section, 
which  indicate  difference  of  authorship  from  that  of  Isaiah. 

That  each  Biblical  writer  has  his  own  distinctive  style,  choice 
of  words  and  conceptions,  the  same  as  characterize  writers  of 
other  literature,  is  a  fact  that  can  easily  be  verified  by  comparing 
the  different  books.  This  holds  true  in  the  New  Test,  as  well  as 
the  Old;  e.g.  Mark's  use  of  ''straightway"  (R. V.  =  "immedi- 
ately" A.  V.)  almost  40  times ;  in  Luke  only  7  and  in  John  4  times. 

(a)  In  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  which  are  commonly 
accepted  as  his,  there  are  certain  words  and  expressions  used 
which  are  not  found  in  Isaiah  40  ff.  The  phrase  ''in  that 
day"  used  by  Isaiah  more  than  thirty  times,  especially  in 
introducing  scenes  or  traits  in  descriptions  of  the  future 
(e.g.  3  :  18  ;  4  :  1  f . ;  7  :  18,  20,  etc.),  occurs  in  Isaiah  40  ff. 
only  once  (52 :  6) .  So  the  introductory  formula  frequently 
used,  "and  it  shall  come  to  pass"  {e.g.  4:3;  7 :  18,  21,  23 ; 
8  :  21,  etc.)  is  not  met  with  at  all  in  Isa.  40-55.  (It  is  found 
in  Isa.  65  :  24  and  66  :  23.)  On  the  other  hand  there  are 
phrases  and  words  in  Isaiah  40  ff.,  which  do  not  appear  in  the 
undisputed  sections  of  Isaiah  1-39,  or,  if  in  that  part  of  the 
prophecy,  occurring  but  rarely.  This  distinction  of  words 
and  phraseology  between  the  two  sections  can  hardly  be 
"accidental."  It  can  most  naturally  be  accounted  for  by 
difference  of  authors. 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE       175 

Some  of  the  other  words  and  expressions  characteristic  of 
Isaiah  are  ''glory"  (of  a  nation)  especially  in  figures  denoting  its 
disappearance  or  decay  {e.g.  5  :  13,  R.  V.  marg. ;  10 :  16,  18,  etc.) ; 
the  figure  of  Jehovah's  hand  stretched  out  against  a  nation  or 
part  of  the  earth  (e.g.  5:25;  9:12,  17,  21,  etc.);  ''the  Lord, 
Jehovah  of  hosts"  (1:24;  3:1;  10:16,  33,  etc.);  ''idols"  (a 
special  word,  'elilim  =  ''not-gods,"  e.g.  2:8,  18,  20;  10:11; 
19:1,  3,  etc.).i 

Some  of  the  words  and  expressions  characteristic  of  Isaiah 
40-55  are  as  follows:  ''I  am  Jehovah  and  there  is  none  else" 
(45 :  5  f.,  18,  21  f.) ;  ''I  am  the  first  and  I  am  the  last"  (44 :  6 ; 
48  :  12) ;  ''I  am  thy  God,"  'Hhy  Saviour,"  etc.  (41 :  10,  13  ;  43  :  3 ; 

48  :  176) ;  ''I  am  He,"  i.e.  the  same  (41 :  46 ;  43  :  106,  13  ;  46  :  4, 
etc.).  Also  ''all  flesh"  (40  :  5  f . ;  49  :  26,  etc.) ;  "as  nothing"  in 
a  comparison  (40  :  17  ;  41 :  11  f.) ;  "My  chosen"  (also  "to  choose" 
=  Jehovah's  choice  of  Israel,  41 :  8  f . ;  43  :  10,  20 ;  45  :  4) ;  "isles" 

or  "coasts"  (used  in  Isa.  40  ff.  to  denote  distant  parts  of  the  earth, 
40:15;  41:1,  5,  etc.);  "holy  city"  (48:2;  52:1;  found  else- 
where only  in  Neh.  11 :  1,  18;    Dan.  9  :  24).^ 

(6)  In  reference  to  style,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Isaiah's 
prophecies  are  characterized  by  force,  terseness  and  com- 
pactness. Isaiah  40  ff.,  on  the  other  hand,  is  much  more 
profuse  and  flowing,  with  a  tendency  to  amplify  and  repeat. 
The  rhetoric  of  Isa.  40  ff.  is  warm  and  impassioned  with 
frequent  lyrical  outbursts   {e.g.  42  :  10  f. ;    44  :  23  ;    45  :  8  ; 

49  :  13).  Persuasion  rather  than  force  (the  latter  being  one 
of  the  characteristics  of  Isaiah)  is  the  predominant  feature  of 
the  language  and  thought  of  40  ff.  While  grandeur  is  a 
characteristic  of  the  imagination  of  Isaiah^s  messages,  pathos 
is  that  which  marks  Isaiah  40  ff.^ 

Two  special  characteristics  of  the  style  of  Isa.  40  ff.  may  be 
further  noticed,  viz.  (a)  the  repetition  of  the  initial  word  of  a  sen- 
tence or  some  other  word  of  emphasis  (cf .  40 :  1 ;  43  :  1 1 ,  25 ; 
48:11,  15,  etc.);  and  (6)  "the  habit  of  attaching  a  series  of 
descriptive  participial  (or  relative)  clauses  to  the  name  of  God,  or 

1  Cf.  for  full  lists  Skinner,  Isa.  ii.  pp.  xlix  ff.  Driver,  Isa.  Life  and 
Times,  193  ff. 

2  Cf.  further  the  lists  in  LOT,  238  ff.  Driver,  Isa.,  etc.,  197  f.  Skin- 
ner, Isa.  ii.  pp.  xlviii  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Isa.  ii.  pp.  15  f.  Cheyne,  Introd. 
Isa.  247  ff.  (  =  fuU  list  of  words  and  phrases).     Wade,  Isa.  xlviii  f. 

3  This  paragraph  is  based  closely  upon  LOT,  240  f.  Cf.  also  the  ex- 
cellent characterization  of  the  style  of  Isa.  40  ff.  in  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii. 
pp.  419ff.  (§§  1405  ff.). 


176      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

Israel,  or  Cyrus"  (cf.  40:22  f.,  28  f. ;  41:8  f.,  17;  42:5;  and 
especially  44 :  24-28).  Compare  in  addition  (c)  the  frequent 
examples  of  personification.  Thus  the  prophetic  custom  of  de- 
scribing the  city  or  nation  as  a  maiden  {e.g.  Am.  5:2),  especially 
when  desirous  of  representing  it  as  controlled  by  some  deep  emo- 
tion, is  adopted  in  Isa.  40  ff.  but  with  striking  "independence  and 
originality."  Zion  is  depicted  as  a  bride,  mother  and  widow, 
i.e.  "under  just  those  relations  of  fife  in  which  the  deepest  feelings 
of  humanity  come  into  play."  These  personifications  are  con- 
tinued sometimes  through  a  long  series  of  verses  [e.g.  47 :  1-15 
(Babylon) ;  49  :  18(or  14)-23  ;  51 :  17-23,  etc.]. 

(c)  The  argument  is  further  strengthened  by  differences 
of  reUgious  conceptions,  which  are  characteristic  of  the  two 
sections,  such  as  the  character  of  Jehovah ;  the  doctrine  of 
the  remnant ;  Israel's  relation  to  Jehovah  ;  the  Messianic 
figure;  and  Jehovah's  purpose  in  the  world  through  His 
people.^ 

Jehovah's  universal  character  is  specially  emphasized  in  Isa. 
40  ff. ;  i.e.  His  infinitude,  His  incomparable  nature,  etc.  (cf.  40 : 
12  ff.,  18  ff. ;  42  :  5  ff. ;  44  :  6  ff.,  etc.).  These  conceptions  though 
implicitly  contained  in  Isaiah's  prophecies  are  not  so  explicitly 
set  forth.  In  Isa.  40  ff.  they  are  "made  the  subject  of  reflection 
and  argument." 

In  Isaiah's  prophetic  messages  the  doctrine  of  the  "remnant" 
is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  and  prominent  ideas  (e.g.  6 :  13 ; 
10:  19  ff.,  etc.).  In  Isa.  40  ff.  it  occupies  a  subordinate  place, 
occurring  but  rarely  (cf.  46 :  3),  and  it  is  not  usually  expressed  in 
Isaiah's  phraseology. 

Israel's  relation  to  Jehovah,  its  choice  of  Him,  its  destiny,  etc., 
are  described  differently  from  the  way  they  are  in  Isaiah.  Cf. 
the  figure  of  the  "Servant"  {e.g.  41 :  8  ff. ;  42  :  19  ff.,  etc.). 

In  Isaiah's  teaching  the  Messianic  leader  is  pictured  in  terms 
of  a  king.  This  is  his  typical  representation  (cf.  9  :  6  f . ;  11 : 
1  ff.,  etc.).  In  Isa.  40  ff.  this  figure  is  not  found,  but  in  its  place 
is  that  of  the  "Servant"  (cf.  preceding  paragraph),  which  is  based 
upon  the  conception  of  a  prophet  not  a  king.  This  argument 
from  what  Davidson  terms  the  "Christology,"  to  his  mind  "fur- 
nishes the  strongest  argument  against  its  authorship  by  Isaiah."  ^ 

There  is  a  more  comprehensive  development  of  the  subject  of 
Jehovah's  purpose  to  the  world  through  Israel  than  in  Isaiah; 

1  "The  author  of  these  chapters  {i.e.  40  ff.)  has  not  inappropriately 
been  called  the  theologian  among  the  prophets."     Moore,  LOT,  158. 

2  Cf.  Davidson,  0.  T.  Prophc.  267. 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE       177 

especially  in  connection  with  the  prophetic  mission  of  Israel  (cf. 
42:16,  4,  6;   49:66,  etc.).' 

Such  are  the  main  lines  of  evidence  which  point  to  differ- 
ence of  authorship,  and  which  have  led  to  almost  unanimous 
agreement  among  scholars  in  assigning  to  the  closing  years 
of  the  Exile  (c.  540  B.C.)  at  least  chaps.  40-55  of  Isaiah. 

For  different  views  of  the  origin  of  the  Servant  passages,  viz. 
42:1-4(5-9);  49:1-6(7-13);  50  :  4-9  (10  f.) ;  52:13-53:12, 
see  pp.  198  f.,  iii.  k. 

Some  recent  scholars  {e.g.  H.  P.  Smith,  Kent)  regard  Isa.  40-66 
as  all  written  by  the  same  prophet,  and  date  it  sometime  in  the 
70  years  following  the  building  of  the  Temple,  516-515  B.C.  On 
this  theory  of  dating  the  references  to  Cyrus  (44  :  28;  45  :  1)  are 
scribal  interpolations.  (Cf.  espec.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  27  ff., 
336  ff.) 

Cf.  contra,  Batten,  Ezra,  etc.,  35  f.^ 

D.  Brief  {anonymous)  Prophetic  Messages,  incorporated 
in  other  prophecies,  555-538  B.C.  =  reign  of  Nabonidus 
(the  last  Babylonian  king),  which  terminated  with  the  cap- 
ture of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  539  or  538  B.C. 

a.  Isaiah  21 :  1-10.  This  prophetic  vision  of  the  siege 
of  Babylon  by  the  Persians  and  Medes  (cf.  vs.  1)  reflects 
the  same  historical  background  as  Isaiah  40-55.     Inasmuch 

1  Cf.  further  on  the  differences  in  religious  conceptions,  LOT,  242  f. 
Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times,  206  f.  Skinner,  Isa.  ii.  pp.  xlii  ff. ;  cf.  xxii  ff., 
etc. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Isaiah 
40-55,  LOT,  230  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  185  ff.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc., 
57  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  96  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  129  ff.  Cornill, 
Introd.  284  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  184  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  156  ff.  HDB,  ii. 
493  ff.  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  iv.  1126  (Davidson) ;  extra  vol.  7056  f.  (Kautzsch). 
EBi,  ii.  2191  f.,  2203  ff.  (Chevne) ;  2252  (Guthe) ;  iii.  3890  f.  (Cheyne). 
Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Isa.  40  ff.,  espec.  West.  C.  (Wade) ;  Expos.  B., 
vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Camb.  B.,  vol.  2  (Skinner) ;  Cen.  B.,  vol.  2  (White- 
house) ;  SBOT  (Cheyne),  espec.  130  ff.  TB.  (Davidson).  Cheyne, 
Introd.  Isa.  237  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  419  ff.  (§§  1405  ff.).  W.  R. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church^,  98  f.  Bennett,  Post.  Exil.  Prophs.  36  ff.,  cf. 
51  ff.  Workman,  Servt.  of  Jeh.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  130  ff.  Kirk- 
patrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  353  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  149  ff.  Kent, 
Jew.  People,  9  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  21  f.,  392,  453  ff.  Budde,  Relig. 
Isr.,  208  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  302  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
224  ff.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  266  ff.,  etc. 

Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  27  ff.,  336  ff.,  where  these  chaps,  are  assigned 
to  post-exilic  times  with  chaps.  56  ff. ;  so  also  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist. 
370  ff.  Note  Kent's  view  formerly  of  exihc  date  of  chaps.  40-55,  Kent, 
Jew.  People,  9  ff. 


178      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

as  Elam  (vs.  2)  is  used  here  substantially  for  Persia 
(Anshan  the  hereditary  kingdom  of  Cyrus  was  in  Elam), 
McCurdy  thinks  this  prophetic  message  belongs  before 
547  B.C.,  when  Cyrus  assumed  the  title  ''king  of  Persia."  ^ 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  message  is  less  definite  in  its 
outlook  than  the  following  series  of  short  prophecies  (cf. 
below),  it  seems  a  reasonable  inference  that  it  was  the  earliest 
of  them.2 

Some  scholars  have  considered  that  Isaiah  21 : 1-10  is  a  genuine 
prophecy  of  Isaiah,  reflecting  that  prophet's  concern  in  the  siege 
of  Babylon  by  the  Assyrians  and  its  fate  in  710  B.C.  The  prophet's 
interest,  according  to  this  view,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
probably  the  king  of  Babylon  at  that  time,  Merodach-baladan, 
had  a  secret  understanding  with  Judah  (cf.  Isa.  39).  This  opinion, 
which  was  formerly  held  by  Driver,  Cheyne  and  G.  A.  Smith, 
has  been  given  up  in  their  more  recent  writings  in  favor  of  the 
exihc  date.  Among  other  reasons  against  the  earlier  date  is 
this,  that  in  710  b.c.  the  Elamites  were  the  aUies  of  the  Baby- 
lonians and  not  their  foes. 

Many  scholars  date  the  remainder  of  chap.  21  =  vss.  11  f. 
on  Dumah  and  vss.  13-17  on  Arabia  at  the  same  time  as  vss.  1-10, 
i.e.  late  exihc. ^ 

6.  Isaiah  13  : 1-14 :  23.  Despite  the  heading  (cf.  13  : 1), 
the  evidence  from  the  prophecy  itself  points  unmistakably 
to  the  time  of  the  Exile.  The  prophecy  is  a  prediction  of 
the  overthrow  of  Babylon.  The  Babylon  here  described 
is  not  that  of  Isaiah's  day  (when  it  was  subject  to  Assyria), 
but  the  Babylon  of  the  Exile,  holding  many  nations  in  sub- 
jection (cf.  13  :  11,  19  ;  14 :  5  f.,  12  ff.,  16  f.),  and  especially 
the  power  which  has  kept  Israel  long  in  bondage  (14 :  1-3). 
The  Medes  are  the  people  who  are  being  stirred  up  to  over- 
throw Babylon  (13  :  17).  The  historical  background  is  thus 
practically  the  same  as  in  Isaiah  40-55. 

It  may  be  that  all  that  was  meant  by  the  heading  (13  :  1)  origi- 
nally was  that  the  collection  which  followed  on  foreign  nations  was 
largely  from  Isaiah.^ 

1  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  418  (§  1404). 

2  Cf .,  however,  the  view  that  Isa.  21 :  1-10  is  rather  later  than  13 :  1- 
14:23  (Wade,  Isa.  in  loc). 

3  Cf.  further  in  reference  to  Isa.  21 :  1-10,  Introds.  and  Comms.  on 
Isa.  in  loc.     Cf .  also  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  62. 

*  Cf.  Cheyne,  Isa.  (SHOT),  173. 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE       179 

The  conclusion  for  the  exilic  setting  of  Isa.  13 : 1-14 :  23  har- 
monizes with  the  intensity  of  feeling  manifested  in  the  prophecy 
against  Babylon,  which  can  be  most  naturally  explained  by  a  date 
in  the  closing  period  of  the  Exile. ^ 

While  there  is  general  agreement  in  reference  to  the  exilic 
date  of  this  section,  scholars  are  divided  in  opinion  whether 
it  belongs  between  555  and  549  or  between  549  and  538  b.c. 

In  the  year  549  b.c.  Cyrus  defeated  and  captured  his  overlord 
Astyages  at  the  head  of  the  Scythians.  This  was  accomplished 
by  the  aid  of  the  Medes  in  the  army  of  Astyages,  who  rebelled 
against  him.  Cyrus  succeeded  to  his  dominion,  and  after  consol- 
idating his  kingdom  began  his  career  of  conquest.  Those  holding 
to  a  date  before  549  b.c.  for  Isa.  13 :  1-14 :  23  do  so  among  other 
reasons  because  (a)  Cyrus  is  not  mentioned,  and  (6)  after  that 
year  the  enemy  would  be  called  Persians  not  Medes. ^  Those  who 
consider  it  later  than  549  b.c  maintain  among  other  reasons : 
(a)  that  the  Medes  could  hardly  have  been  regarded  before  549  b.c. 
by  a  Jewish  prophet  as  their  deliverer,  and  (5)  further,  that  the 
term  ''Medes"  is  used  here  for  ''Persians."^  Skinner  concludes 
that  the  inferences  from  the  arguments  advanced  in  support  of 
either  position  are  inconclusive.^ 

14  :  l-4a  (or  1-3)  and  14  :  22  f .  are  considered  by  some  scholars 
later  editorial  additions.  See  Bibhcal  material  outlined,  p.  197, 
ill.  a.5 

c.  Jer.  50  :  1-51 :  58.  The  historical  background  for  this 
prophecy,  notwithstanding  the  title  (50:1),  is  clearly  the 
same  as  the  preceding.  Babylon  is  threatened  by  a  com- 
bination of  nations  led  by  the  Medes  (50  :  9,  41-43  ;  51 :  11, 
27  f.).  The  Temple  at  Jerusalem  has  been  destroyed 
(50  :28;  51:  11,  51).  The  Jews  are  in  Exile  suffering  as  a 
punishment  for  their  sins  (50:4  f.,  7,  17,  33;  51:34  f.). 
Jehovah  is  now  ready  to  forgive  them  and  deliver  them  and 
they  are  exhorted  to  leave  Babylon  (50  :  20,  34 ;  51 :  336,  36). 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  clause  in  50 :  1  attributing  authorship 
to  Jeremiah  is  wanting  in  the  LXX. 

1  For  arguments  adduced  from  religious  conceptions,  style  and  lan- 
guage in  Isa.  13  :  1-14 :  23,  cf.  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  104.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa. 
69  ff. 

2  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  415  f.  (§§  1401  f.).     Wade,  Isa.  92. 

3  Cf.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  78. 
*  Cf.  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  109. 

5  Cf .  further  in  reference  to  Isa.  13  :  1-14 :  23,  Introds.  and  Comms.  on 
Isa.  in  loc.     Cf .  also  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  61  f. 


180      AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

That  Jer.  50 :  1-51 :  58  does  not  belong  to  Jeremiah  is  seen  by 
noticing  the  different  point  of  view  in  these  chaps,  (a)  The 
Exiles  are  encouraged  with  the  hope  of  speedy  release  (cf.  above), 
and  they  are  exhorted  to  beheve  in  its  realization  (cf .  the  parallel 
standpoint  in  Isa.  40-55,  pp.  172  f.).  Jeremiah,  on  the  other  hand, 
earnestly  opposed  the  prophets  who  predicted  the  downfall  of 
Babylon  and  the  restoration  of  the  Jews  (cf.  Jer.  27-29).  (6) 
Further,  these  chaps,  betray  an  intensity  of  feeling,  which  can  be 
most  naturally  accounted  for  as  coming  from  one  who  had  suffered 
greatl}^  from  the  Babylonians,  and  whose  thoughts  are  those  of 
vengeance  (cf.  the  standpoint  in  Isa.  47:6  f . ;  52:5).  But 
Jeremiah  received  kindness  from  the  Babylonians  and  regarded 
them,  even  when  he  was  in  Egypt,  as  instruments  of  divine 
Providence  (cf.  39:11  ff. ;  43:10  f . ;  44:30).  According  to 
Davidson  this  section  is  ''almost  universally  recognized  to  be  of 
later  date  than  Jeremiah  and  by  another  writer."  ^  Some  {e.g. 
Ewald  and  Duhm)  have  held  that  these  chaps,  and  Isa.  34  f. 
(cf.  pp.  215  ff. ;  264,  iv.  4)  had  the  same  author,  but  this  view  is 
not  commonly  accepted. 

Some  scholars  regard  this  section  as  post-exilic  owing  to  its 
''secondary  rather  than  original"  literary  features.  Cf.  Peake, 
Cornill,  Moore's  LOT,  170,  etc.^ 

d.  Jer.  10  :  1-16.  This  short  prophetic  message  may  also 
with  probability  be  assigned  to  the  closing  years  of  the  Exile. 
The  following  are  the  more  important  reasons  for  this  view : 
(a)  it  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  writings  of  Jeremiah 
which  precede  it,  for  the  context  contains  a  prediction  of 
impending  judgment  upon  the  people,  and  they  are  referred 
to  as  already  given  up  to  idolatry  {e.g.  7 :  18,  31,  etc.), 
while  in  this  section  Israel  is  warned  against  learning  idolatry 
(10  :  2).  (b)  Jeremiah's  argument  is  that  idols  cannot  help 
Judah  in  difficulties  (2  :  28 ;  11 :  12,  etc.) ;  but  in  10  :  1-16  the 
argument  is  that  idols  cannot  harm  any  one  and  hence  are 
not  to  be  feared ;  and  (c),  the  descriptions  of  vss.  3-5  and  9 
indicate  that  the  people  are  in  the  presence  of  an  elaborate 
idolatry,  which  is  being  practised  not  by  themselves  but  by 
the  heathen,  and  the  thought  is  that  this  worship  does  not 
deserve  their  consideration.  This  condition  is  well  met  by 
that  of  the  Exiles  in  Babylon,  who  were  in  danger  of  losing 

1  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  5736  (Davidson). 

2  Cf .  further  in  reference  to  Jer.  50 :  1-51 :  58,  Introds.  and  Comms.  on 
Jer.  in  loc.     Cf.  also  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  62  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE       181 

their  faith  by  the  imposing  forms  of  idolatry  about  them. 
Cf .  the  same  Une  of  thought  in  Isa.  40  :  19-22 ;  41 :  7,  29 ; 
44  :  9-20 ;  46  :  5-7,  etc. 

The  fact  may  also  be  noted  that  Jeremiah  predicted  again  and 
again  that  Judah  was  to  be  overthrown  by  the  Chaldeans  (Baby- 
lonians), who  from  the  standpoint  of  chap.  10 :  1-16,  however, 
are  a  nation  of  idolaters,  whose  idols  are  not  to  be  feared.^ 

It  is  to  be  noticed  also  that  10 :  17  ff.  connects  logically  with 
9 :  21  f.,  which  indicates  that  10  :  1-16  is  an  interpolation.^ 

3.  Poetical  Writings 

A.  Lamentations.  The  book  of  Lamentations  consists  of 
five  poems,  each  complete  in  itself.  In  the  Hebrew  they 
are  written  in  elegiac  meter,  except  the  last,  chap.  5.  Chap- 
ters 1-4  are  also  alphabetical  (acrostic)  in  structure,  i.e.  in 
chaps.  1,  2  and  4  each  verse  and  in  chap.  3  each  set  of  three 
verses  (cf.  grouping  in  R.  V.  ed.  1881-1885)  begin  with 
successive  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  which  are  twenty- 
two  in  number.^ 

''This  book  furnishes  the  most  striking  example  of  the  Hebrew 
elegiac  or  Qinah  metre,  according  to  which  each  number  of  a  verse 
is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts,  the  former  being  the  longer. 
This  arrangement  gives  the  lines  a  sort  of  'dying  fall'  suited  to 
a  melancholy  subject,  e.g.:  — 

^     .  7    f  All  her  gates  are  desolate,  7 

—  her  priests  sigh :  '         6 
Her  virgins  are  afflicted,  6 

—  bitter  is  she.  3 
The  English  translation  can  onl}^  partially  represent  this  peculiar- 
ity. .  .  ."^ 

The  circumstances  reflected  in  the  poems  are  very  clear. 
Jerusalem  has  suffered  the  horrors  of  a  siege  (1:11,  19; 
2  :  11  f.,  19  f. ;  4  :  3-9)  and  capture  (5  :  11  f.,  cf.  2  :  12,  20  f.), 
and  now  lies  waste,  —  the  Temple  being  destroyed  and  its 
accustomed  services  at  an  end  (1:4;   2  :  5  ff. ;  4:1).     The 

1  Cf .  LOT,  254. 

2  Cf .  further  in  reference  to  Jer.  10 :  1-16,  Introds.  and  Comms.  on 
Jeremiah  in  loc. 

3  It  is  to  be  noted  that  chap.  5,  while  not  in  elegiac  meter  nor  alphabetical 
in  form,  has  twenty- two  vss. 

-  Cf.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  56. 


4c 


Hebrew 
syllables. 


182      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

king  and  people  now  languish  in  captivity  (1 :  3,  5  ff. ;  2:9). 
Reference  is  also  made  to  Edom's  treacherous  conduct 
(4:21  f.),  and  to  the  disappointment  experienced  from  ex- 
pectation of  help  from  some  outside  power,  most  naturally 
to  be  explained  as  Egypt,  in  connection  with  the  rebellion 
against  Babylon  (1 :  19a;  4: 17).  The  Hebrews  have  be- 
come the  object  of  contempt  of  all  nations  (1 :  17 ;  3  :  14). 

The  reading  of  the  Pesh.  and  many  Hebrew  MSS.  in  3 :  14, 
*' peoples"  instead  of  ^'my  people"  (E.  V.),  is  one  which  has  found 
favor  with  many  scholars. 

The  historical  background  of  these  poems  seems  most 
naturally  to  be  that  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.c, 
and  the  deportation  of  the  people  (2  Ki.  25),  which  are 
depicted  therein  as  accomplished  facts. 

Two  further  facts  need  to  be  considered  in  assigning  a 
date  to  these  poems.  First,  the  impression  which  they  give, 
in  the  vivid  descriptions  of  Jerusalem's  condition  during 
the  siege,  of  being  the  work,  —  at  least  the  greater  portion 
of  the  poems,  —  of  an  eye-witness  (or  eye-witnesses),  or  of  a 
younger  contemporary  (or  contemporaries)  of  that  event. 
And  secondly,  the  elaborate  and  intricate  structure  of  these 
alphabetical  poems  (giving  evidence  of  being  the  produc- 
tions of  calm  reflection)  naturally  points  to  a  date  later 
than  the  time  immediately  succeeding  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  in  586  B.C. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  they  belong  to  different  years 
during  this  period,  and  so  may  be  assigned  to  580-550  B.C. 
(c.  570-560  B.C.  =  Gray,  Introd.  167). 

The  present  tendency  among  scholars  is  to  regard  Lamentations 
as  a  collection  of  poems  by  different  authors,  though  opinion  is 
divided  as  to  their  order  (historically)  and  what  chaps,  belong  to- 
gether. The  view  has  commended  itself  to  many  that  chaps.  2 
and  4,  with  their  vivid  portrayal  of  the  calamity  and  their  hope- 
lessness as  to  outlook,  are  the  earliest ;  and  that  chaps.  3  and  5  are 
the  latest.  Chap.  3  is  assigned  to  post-exiKc  times  by  a  number  of 
scholars. 

As  regards  the  authorship  of  the  poems,  the  prevaiUng  opinion 
among  scholars  is  against  the  traditional  view  which  ascribes  them 
to  Jeremiah.  The  following  are  some  of  the  considerations  upon 
which  this  conclusion  is  based :  (a)  the  fact  that  the  tradition 
comes  through  the  LXX,  which  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  based 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE       183 

in  turn  on  2  Chr.  35  :  25,  and  thus  represents  a  view  three  centuries 
later  than  Jeremiah.  The  Hebr.  MSS.  are  silent  on  the  point  of 
authorship.  (6)  The  artificial  style  of  these  poems  (cf.  above) 
is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  spontaneous  expression  of  Jeremiah  ; 
(c)  the  different  point  of  view  and  tone  in  the  poems  from  those  of 
Jeremiah ;  e.g.  the  vindictive  spirit  in  reference  to  the  Chaldeans 
(Babylonians),  cf.  1 :  21  f.,  3  :  59  ff. ;  whereas  Jeremiah's  attitude 
tovv^ards  them  was  sympathetic,  as  Jehovah's  instrument  of  pun- 
ishing Judah  {e.g.  Jer.  25:27-29;  chaps.  34,  37,  etc.).  The 
prevailing  tone  of  despair  in  these  poems  also  differs  from  the 
spirit  which  characterized  the  prophet,  who,  though  he  at  times 
gave  way  to  grief,  was  as  well  a  man  of  hope  and  action  (cf .  Jer. 
42,  etc.) ;  and  (d)  the  statements  that  there  is  no  true  prophet 
(cf.  2 :  9,  14 ;  4 :  13  ff.)  cannot  reasonably  be  attributed  to  Jere- 
miah. Note  also  the  position  of  the  book  in  the  third  division  of 
the  Canon,  not  the  second  in  which  Jeremiah's  prophecies  are  found. 
Cf.  further,  Introds.,  Bible  Diets,  and  Comms.  G.  A.  Smith, 
Jerusalem,  ii.  272  ff.i  ^ 

B.  "The  Song  of  Moses/'  Deuteronomy  32:1-43.  This 
song  attributed  to  Moses  (cf.  31 :  30 ;  32 :  44)  is  evidently 
of  later  origin  than  his  day.  This  is  seen  in  (a),  vss.  7-12, 
which  clearly  indicate  that  Israel  had  been  for  a  long  time 
in  possession  of  Palestine.  Cf.  also  (6),  the  evidence  in  vss. 
13-20,  viz.  that  through  its  idolatry  the  nation  had  been 
brought  low. 

The  date  of  the  poem  depends  upon  what  nation  is  referred 
to  as  oppressing  Israel  (vss.  34-39,  cf.  vs.  21),  which  Jehovah 

1  Kent's  grouping  and  dates  for  the  poems  are  as  follows :  chaps. 
2  and  4  =  between  586  and  561  b.c.  ;  chap.  1  =  between  560  and  540  b.c.  ; 
chap.  5  =  approximately  the  same  time  as  chap.  1 ;  chap.  3  =  last  half 
of  Persian  or  first  part  of  the  Greek  period.  Cf.  his  Songs,  etc.,  19  fif. 
See  summary  of  views,  LOT,  464  f .     Cf .  Cheyne's  dates,  p.  270,  n.  ^. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Lamen- 
tations, LOT,  456  &.  Bennett,  Introd.  210  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  92  f., 
193.  McFadyen,  Introd.  294  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  411  ff.  Gray,  Introd. 
163  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  226  f.  HDB,  iii.  20  ff.  (Selbie) ;  iv.  1496  (Davi- 
son) ;  13a  (Budde) ;  iii.  614a  (Budde) ;  extra  vol.  7236,  n.  *  (Kautzsch). 
EBi,  iii.  2696  ff.  (Cheyne) ;  3801  (Duhm).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Lam. 
espec.  Camb.  B.  (Streane) ;  Cen.  B.  (Peake).  Cf.  Adeney,  Song  of  Sol. 
etc.  (Expos.  B.),  63  ff.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  54  ff.  Kent,  Songs,  etc., 
18  ff.,  73  ff.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  71  ff.  Cheyne,  Jer.  Life  and  Times, 
177  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  356  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  292  ff. 
(§§  1237  ff.).  McFadyen,  Psal.  295  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  340  f. 
Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  23  f.,  391.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  11  f.  Sanders,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  211,  215.  G.  A.  Smith,  Jerusalem,  ii.  pp.  271  ff.  Fowler,  Hist. 
Lit.,  etc.,  246  ff. 


184      AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

is  to  punish,  whether  Syria,  Assyria  or  Babylonia.  Accord- 
ingly it  has  been  assigned  to  the  following  possible  dates, 
c.  800  B.C.  {e,g.  Dillmann) ;  c.  722  b.c.  (Ewald,  etc.) ;  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim,  608-597  B.C.  {e.g.  H.  P.  Smith,  Gray),  or 
the  Exile  (Cornill,  Kautzsch,  G.  A.  Smith,  Moore,  CHB, 
Hex.,  Driver,  Robinson,  Kent,  etc.) 

Cf.  c.  560  B.C.  =  Kautzsch ;  570-550  b.c.  =  Kent.^ 
While  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  historical  occasion 
with  certainty,  the  period  of  the  Exile,  which  seems  to  be 
presupposed  in  vss.  36  ff.,  may  be  regarded  as  on  the  whole 
the  most  probable  time  of  its  composition.  Assuming  then 
its  exilic  origin,  the  poem  must  have  been  incorporated  in 
JED  by  the  Deuteronomic  compiler  (R^^).  If  an  earher 
date  is  taken,  it  must  have  been  included  in  the  Prophetic 
sources,  J,  E  or  JE.^ 

C.  Psalms.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  our  Psalter, 
the  final  compilation  of  which  dates  from  post-exilic  times, 
contains  psalms  which  had  their  origin  during  the  Exile. 
According  to  McCurdy  ''no  period  of  Israel's  history  was 
more  likely  to  give  rise  to  such  poems  of  the  heart  than  was 
the  Exile."  ^  Scholars,  however,  differ  in  opinion  as  to  their 
number  and  identification.  For  some  of  the  exihc  groupings 
of  psalms  given  by  different  scholars,  cf.  pp.  194  (a) ;  196  f., 
ii.  5.  a.-c. 

4.   Legal  Codifications,  —  The  Law  of  Holiness 
(Leviticus  17-26) 

This  name,  first  applied  by  Klostermann  in  1877  to  this 
distinct  body  of  laws,  which  was  incorporated  in  the  Priestly 
Code,  has  been  adopted  by  most  recent  scholars.  The 
name  was  suggested  by  the  motive  or  principle  of  '^  holiness," 

1  Cf.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  chron.  table  in  Preface.  See,  however, 
his  more  recent  conclusion  that  this  poem  is  probably  to  be  dated  in  the 
first  half  of  the  Persian  period.     Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  261. 

2  Cf .  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Deut.  32 : 
1-43,  LOT,  96  f.  Bennett,  Introd.  75.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  93  f.,  194. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  50,  n.  1.  CorniU,  Introd.  122  ff.  HDB,  iv.  149a 
(Davison) ;  extra  vol.  685a  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  i.  1089  (Moore).  Comms. 
on  Deut.  in  loc,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Driver) ;  Expos.  B.  (A.  Harper) ;  Cen. 
B.  (Robinson).  CHB,  Hex.  i.  161  ff.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  261  fiP.  Schmidt, 
Poets,  336  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Early  Poet.  Isr.,  75  fP.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc., 
19  f.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  93,  215,  n.  5.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist. 
290  f.     Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  131.     Gray,  Introd.  46,  etc. 

3  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  387  f.  (§  1363). 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE       185 

which  occupies  so  prominent  a  place  in  these  chapters,  e.g. 
19:2;  20:7  f.,  26;  21:6  ff.,  15,  23,  etc.  This  Code  is 
usually  designated  by  the  symbol  H.  Other  designations 
are  P\  P^  etc. 

Among  the  different  reasons  adduced  for  the  opinion  that 
these  chapters  form  a  distinct  code  the  following  may  be 
noted  :  (a)  the  motive  of  ''holiness"  already  referred  to,  which, 
while  it  is  employed  in  other  parts  of  the  legal  literature 
{e.g.  Ex.  22 :  31  =  E ;  Deut.  14 :  2,  21  =  D),  does  not  have 
the  leading  place  given  to  it  in  those  sections,  such  as  it  has 
in  this  Code ;  (6)  this  group  of  chapters  has  an  opening 
(chap.  17)  and  a  closing  section  (chap.  26),  after  the  manner 
of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  and  the  Deuteronomic  Code ; 
and  (c)  the  distinct  phraseology  "expressing  the  leading 
ideas  of  the  collection":  e.g.  "I  am  Jehovah,"  especially 
at  the  close  of  an  injunction  (cf.  18 :  2,  4  ff. ;  19  :  3  f.,  etc., 
nearly  fifty  times);  "for  I  Jehovah  am  holy"  (cf.  19:2; 
20  :  26,  etc.) ;  "that  sanctify  you  (them) "  (cf.  20  :  8  ;  21 :  8, 
etc.)  ;  "I  will  cut  off  from  among  his  (its,  their)  people" 
(cf.  17:10;  20:3  ff.,  etc.);  the  word  for  idols,  "'elilim" 
(  =  "  not-gods,"  or  "things  of  nought, "  19  : 4  ;  26  : 1),  which 
is  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  Pentateuch.^ 

Cf.  further  under  (6)  above  that  Lev.  17  contains  instruction  in 
reference  to  the  place  of  slaughtering  animals,  etc.  Note  the 
content  of  Ex.  20 :  24  ff.  (E)  and  Deut.  12  (D).  The  closing  sec- 
tion, Lev.  26,  is  hortatory  in  tone ;  notice  the  subscription  vs.  46. 
Cf .  Ex.  23  :  20  ff.  and  Deut.  28,  the  close  respectively  of  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant  and  the  Deuteronomic  Code.  Observe  the 
resemblance  between  Lev.  26  and  Deut.  28. 

Further  reasons  for  considering  Lev.  17-26  a  separate  part  of  the 
Priestly  legislation  are :  {d)  the  fact  that  the  hortatory  setting  of 
the  laws  in  this  section  has  no  parallel  in  other  parts  of  P.^  And 
(e)  the  character  of  the  laws,  60  per  cent  of  which  relate  to  religion 
and  morals  in  social  life  {e.g.  the  family,  persons,  animals,  property, 
etc.),  which  have  no  parallels  with  other  parts  of  P,  but  which 
can  be  paralleled  (topically)  practically  in  E  or  D.  ''Only  40 
per  cent  come  under  heads  where  parallels  with  the  rest  of  P  are 
numerous."^ 

1  Cf.  further  on  the  characteristic  words  and  phrases  of  H  the  lists 
in  LOT,  49  f.     CHB,  Hex.  i.  220  f. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  2783  (Moore). 

3  Cf.  HDB,  iii.  1076  f.  (Harford-Battersby). 


186      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  facts  bearing 
upon  the  date  of  the  compilation  of  this  Code. 

First,  its  relation  to  the  other  legal  codes.  It  occupies  a 
position  intermediate  between  the  Deuteronomic  Code  (and 
the  laws  in  JE)  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  completed  Priestly- 
ritual  (P)  on  the  other,  being  more  closely  allied  with  the 
former  than  the  latter.  Thus  (a)  it  harmonizes  with  Deuter- 
onomy in  that  it  contains  no  reference  to  the  Levites  as  an 
inferior  order  of  the  priestly  tribe,  such  as  the  distinction  is 
in  P;  (6)  the  reference  to  the  High  Priest  (21 :  10),  as  one 
greater  than  his  brethren,  is  different  in  a  marked  degree 
from  the  High  Priest  in  the  more  developed  ritual  of  P  (cf . 
Lev.  16 ;  Ex.  28  f.) ;  ^  and  (c)  like  the  Deuteronomic  Code 
(cf.  Deut.  12 : 1,  20 ;  19  : 1  ff . ;  21 : 1  ff.,  etc.)  its  provisions 
also  are  represented  as  being  designed  to  go  into  operation 
after  the  settlement  in  Canaan  (cf .  Lev.  18 :  3,  24 ;  19  :  23 ; 
20 :  22-24,  etc.).  On  the  other  hand  it  harmonizes  with  P 
in  the  place  given  to  ceremonial  interests,  as  seen  in  ^'mani- 
fold details  concerning  sacred  acts,  persons,  places,  times  and 
instruments." 

According  to  Moore  the  afiinities  of  H  are  with  JE  and  D  rather 
than  with  P.^  Note  for  example  the  resemblance  between  Lev.  19, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Ex.  20-23  and  Deut.,  espec.  chaps.  23  ff., 
on  the  other.  Cf.  also  the  similarity  between  Lev.  19  and  the 
Decalogue,  Ex.  20 :  1-17. 

The  distinction  between  the  Levites  and  the  priests  is  first 
brought  out  in  Ezek.  44 : 9  ff. ;  cf .  in  P,  Num.  18.  In  Deut. 
Levites  and  priests  are  sjnionymous  terms  (cf.  pp.  126  and  242  f.). 

Another  point  of  difference  between  H  and  P  is  found  in  the 
enactment  of  the  feast  of  booths.  According  to  its  original  form 
in  Lev.  23 :  39-44  it  was  to  be  observed  7  days  instead  of  8  (vs. 
396  =  H,  cf.  39c  =  P),  and  was  determined  by  the  season,  ''when 
ye  have  gathered  in  the  fruits  of  the  land"  (396).  The  mention  of 
'Hhe  8th  day"  (39c)  and  'Hhe  15th  day  of  the  7th  mo."  (39a)  are 
considered  by  scholars  to  be  later  supplements  by  P,  inconsistent 
with  vss.  40-42,  these  additions  belonging  probably  to  the  time 
when  H  was  incorporated  into  the  Priestly  Code.     Note  also  the 

1  In  P  the  High  Priest  "has  taken  the  place  of  the  king  as  the  civil 
and  religious  head  of  the  theocratic  state.  On  entering  upon  his  office 
he  receives  *a  kingly  unction,'  and  is  invested  with  the  purple  robe  and 
the  'holy  crown'  or  diadem,  the  two  insignia  of  royalty  in  the  Persian 
period  (cf.  Lev.  8:  7-9)."     Kennedy,  Lev.,  etc.,  24. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  2791  f.  (Moore). 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE       187 

fact  that  the  list  of  sacrifices  is  more  hmited  in  H  than  in  P  proper ; 
e.g.  no  mention  is  made  of  the  sin  and  guilt  offering  in  the  former. 

Cf.  further  in  reference  to  the  High  Priest  [see  (6)  above],  the 
fact  that  in  Ezek.  he  is  primus  inter  pares  (45  :  19).  See  also  2  Ki. 
11:15;   16:11;  22:4;  Jer.  21 :  1 ;  29:25. 

Another  proof  that  H  represents  a  less  advanced  stage  of  the 
ritual  development  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  injunction  imposed 
upon  the  High  Priest  in  H  (Lev.  21 :  10)  is  placed  upon  all  the 
priests  in  P  (Lev.  10:6f.). 

Secondly,  the  relation  of  the  Holiness  Code  to  Ezekiel. 
This  relates  not  only  to  laws  in  H  which  are  implied  or 
referred  to  in  Ezekiel  (e.g.  Ezek.  22  :  7a,  cf .  Lev.  20  :  9  ; 
Ezek.  4  :  14,  cf.  Lev.  22  ;  8,  etc.),  and  to  common  phraseology, 
especially  between  Lev.  26  :  3  ff .  and  Ezekiel  (e.g.  cf .  with  Lev. 
26  :  26,  Ezek.  4 :  16,  5  :  16,  14  :  13 ;  with  Lev.  26  :  39,  cf. 
Ezek.  4  :  17,  24  :  23),  but  as  well  to  a  common  spirit  which 
pervades  them,  —  ^'both  are  actuated  largely  by  the  same 
principles,  and  aim  at  realizing  the  same  ends"  (e.g.  regard 
for  the  Sanctuary,  cf.  Lev.  19:30;  20 :  3,  etc.,  with  Ezek. 
5:11;  8:6;  23  :  38  f.,  etc. ;  also  emphasis  on  the  same  vir- 
tues, such  as  purity  of  conduct,  reverence  for  parents, 
justice,  honesty,  etc. ;  cf.  Lev.  18  :  19  ff . ;  20  :  9  ff.  with  Ezek. 
18:6ff.;  22  :  7  ff.,  etc.).i 

''This  list  of  identities  and  resemblances"  (i.e.  between  the  HoH- 
ness  Code  and  Ezekiel)  ''is  without  a  parallel  in  the  rest  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  and  hence  some  scholars  have  been  led  to  consider 
Ezekiel  the  compiler  of  H.  O^vdng,  however,  to  the  fact  that  there 
are  stylistic  differences  as  well  as  resemblances  between  the  two, 
that  view  is  not  wddely  held.  "Perhaps  it  is  more  probable  that 
the  two  codes  owe  their  resemblance  to  the  use  of  the  same  material, 
viz.  the  traditional  ordinances  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem."  ^ 

It  may  be  noted  also  that  on  the  question  of  priority  there  is 
difference  of  opinion. 

Thirdly,  indications  of  date  in  Lev.  26.  References  in  this 
chapter  to  worship  at  ''high  places"  and  to  "sun-pillars" 
(vs.  30)  point  to  a  time  when  such   cultus  was   current. 

1  Cf.  further  on  the  elements  common  to  Ezekiel  and  the  Law  of  Holi- 
ness, LOT,  145  ff.  EBi,  ii.  1470  f.  (Toy) ;  iii.  2790  f.  (Moore).  HDB, 
iii.  108a  (Harford-Battersby).  CHB,  Hex.  i.  147  fif.  Chapman  and 
Streane,  Lev.  180  ff. ;  also  the  excellent  table  in  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent. 
246  ff.,  etc. 

2  Cf.  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.  253 ;  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  74. 


188     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

Further,  treatment  of  national  penitence  with  promise  of 
restoration  (vss.  40  E.),  and  vivid  descriptions  of  the  conse- 
quences of  disobedience  (vss.  14-39),  are  held  by  many  to 
imply  the  time  of  the  Exile ;  cf .  also  18 :  25-30. 

As  bearing  on  the  above  argument,  it  may  be  added,  that  sun 
worship,  which  had  been  introduced  in  the  time  of  Ahaz,  c.  735  ff. 
B.C.  (cf.  2  Ki.  16 :  10  ff.),  and  whose  S3anbols  had  later  been  de- 
stroyed by  Josiah  (2  Ki.  23 : 4),  would  naturally  be  again  cele- 
brated when  Babylon  became  supreme.^  Cf.  also  the  special 
mention  of  Molech  in  Lev.  18  :  21 ;  20  :  2. 

The  inference  for  date  from  Lev.  26,  mentioned  above,  is  not 
accepted  by  all  scholars.  Thus  Driver  thinks  that  the  contents 
of  the  chapter  need  not  imply  more  than  a  date  close  to  the  Exile. 
Others  (e.g.  Moore)  think  the  references  in  the  chapter  implying 
the  Exile  are  later  insertions.  He  considers  H  in  its  original  form 
as  ''the  product  of  the  same  age  with  Deuteronomy,"  i.e.  in  the 
half  century  preceding  Ezekiel.^ 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  while  the  decision  of  the  exact 
date  for  the  compilation  of  this  Code  is  difficult  to  determine, 
the  conclusion  that  it  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Exile  and 
subsequent  to  Ezekiel,  and  that  it  was  compiled  by  one 
imbued  with  his  spirit  (c.  560-550  B.C.),  is  one  which  has 
found  acceptance  with  many  scholars. 

In  assigning  this  as  the  probable  date  for  H  the  reader  is  reminded 
that  this  refers  to  the  codification  not  to  the  origin  of  the  particular 
laws  contained  therein.  The  work  of  the  compiler,  which  is 
marked  by  the  hortatory  portions,  it  seems  most  likely  belongs 
approximately  to  the  age  of  Ezekiel,  —  if  prior  to  Ezekiel  ''it 
cannot  at  any  rate  be  much  earlier."  The  sources  of  this  Code 
(=  the  legal  provisions  incorporated)  doubtless  were  pre-exiUc, 
and  some  of  the  enactments  may  possibly  go  back  as  far  as  the  time 
of  Moses.  In  the  words  of  Harford-Battersby :  "In  their  form 
and  in  their  substance  these  laws  may  well  be  very  ancient.  Their 
antiquity  indeed  is  better  established  than  any  theory  of  their 
origin.  An  attractive  and  plausible  conjecture,  however,  is  that 
they  represent  J's  missing  legislation."  ^ 

For  later  editorial  additions  when  H  was  united  with  the  main 

1  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  14  f.,  259  f.  (  =  §§  856,  1191). 

2  Cf.  Driver,  etc.,  Lev.  (SHOT),  101.  LOT,  145  f.,  149  ff.,  EBi,  iii. 
2787,  2791  (Moore).  Moore,  LOT,  54.  Kennedy,  Lev.,  etc.,  28,  119,  etc. 
Cf.  contra  Moore's  view  of  chap.  26,  CHB,  Hex.  i.  151  f. 

3  Cf.  HDB,  iii.  108a.    See  also  CHB,  Hex.  i.  145  f. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE       189 

Priestly  Code  (P),  see  notes  under  Biblical  material  arranged  p.  194, 
iii.  b.  c. 

For  other  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  attributed  to  H,  cf.  p. 
194,  iii.  d} 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  the  Law 
of  HoHness,  LOT,  47  ff.,  145  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  52  f.,  67.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  100  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  31  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  132  ff.  Chap- 
man, Introd.  Pent.  240  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  41.  Moore,  LOT,  53  f.  HDB, 
ii.  374  (Woods);  iii.  696  f.  (Driver);  1056  ff.  (Harford-Battersby) ; 
extra  vol.  715a  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  2056  (Cheyne) ;  iii.  2738  f.  (Gray) ; 
2782  ff.  (Moore).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Lev.,  espec.  Camb.  B.  (Chap- 
man and  Streane) ;  Cen.  B.  (Kennedy) ;  SBOT  (Driver  and  White).  Ben- 
nett, Primer,  etc.,  73  f.  Kent,  Isr.  Laws  and  Precedents,  36  ff.  CHB, 
Hex.  i.  143  ff.,  151  f . ;  ii.  166  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  387  (§  1362). 
W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Churchy  428  ff.  Kent,  Lawgivers,  36,  40  f. 
H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  333  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  126  ff.  Ryle, 
Canon,  etc.,  25  f.,  72  ff.  Budde,  Rehg.  Isr.  205.  Kittel,  Scient.  Study 
O.T.  85f. 

Cf .  also  Davidson,  Ezek.  liii  f.     Lofthouse,  Ezek.  30  f. 


VIII.  B.  Narratives  and  Literature  of  the  Period  of  the 
Exile,  Chronologically  Outlined  (586-538  b.c).  Nar- 
ratives =  2  Ki.  25:22-30;  Jer.  39:10-14;  40:1-43:7; 
52  :  28-34.  Prophecies  =  Jer.  43  :  8-44  :  30 ;  Ezek.  25-28 ; 
29:17-21;  chaps.  32;  33-48;  Isa.  21:1-10;  13:1-14:23; 
Jer.  50  :  1-51 :  58 ;  Isa.  40-55 ;  Jer.  10  :  1-16.  Poetry  = 
Lamentations;  Deut.  32:1-43  C'The  Song  of  Moses"); 
some  psalms.  Legal  literature  =  the  Law  of  Holiness 
(Lev.  17-26).! 

SECTION  I,  586-570  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  the  Jews,  586-570  b.c.  [especially  for 
586-581  (?)  B.C.] 

2  Ki.  25  :  22.     GedaHah  appointed  governor,  etc.  (cf.  Jer.  39  :  10; 

also  40:  5).     586  b.c. 
Jer.    39  :  11-14.     Jeremiah's  release  by  the  Chaldeans. 

40 : 1-16.     Gedahah's  assurance  to  the  people,  etc.  (with  vss. 

7-12  cf.  2  Ki.  25  :  23  f.).     c.  586  b.c. 
41 : 1-43  :  7.     Gedaliah's  assassination ;  migration  to  Egypt, 

etc.   (with  41 :  1-10  cf .  2  Ki.    25  :  25  ;    with   43  :  1-7  cf . 

2  Ki.  25:26).     c.  581(?)  b.c. 
52  :  28-30.     Summary  of  different  bands  taken  captive  by  the 

Chaldeans ;  viz.  c.  587,  586  and  581  b.c. 

ii.   Literary  productions,  586-570  b.c. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Ezekiel  in  Babylonia,  during  586  b.c. 

and  the  years  immediately  afterwards.     (Chaps.  25-28  ;  32  ;  33-39.) 

a.  Those  relating  to  foreign  nations  {chaps.  25-28;   32). 

Chap.  25.     Predictions  of  the  destruction  of  Ammon  and  other 

neighboring  nations. 

26  : 1-28  :  19.     Predictions  of  the  downfall  of  Tyre.     586- 

585  B.C. 
28  :  20-23.     A  prediction  of  Sidon's  punishment. 
28  :  24-26.     A  prediction  of  Israel's  restoration. 
32.    A   prediction   of   Pharaoh's   (Egypt's)  destruction, 
etc.     585-584  b.c. 

1  For  other  literary  productions,  including  Deut.  historical  redactions, 
cf.  pp.  193  f.,  3;  196f.,  4,  5. 

190 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE     191 

5.  Those  relating  to  the  restoration  of  the  Exiles  (chaps.  33-39), 
586  ff.  B.C. 
Chap.  33.     The  responsibility  of  the  prophet,  etc.     Dec-Jan. 
586-585  B.C. 
34.     The  selfishness  of  Israel's  past  rulers,  etc. 
35-36.     Judgment  upon  Edom ;    Israel's  restoration  to 

its  land,  etc. 
37.     Symbolical  predictions  of  the  reviving  and  unifying 

of  Israel. 
38:1-39:24.     Judgment  upon  Gog's  hosts  (=  heathen- 
dom). 
39  :  25-29.     A  renewed  promise  of  restoration  and  divine 
favor. 

2.  Messages  of  Jeremiah  in  Egypt.  Jer.  43  :  8-44  :  30.     c.  581  (?) 

B.C. 

Chap.  43  :  8-13.     SjmaboHc  prediction  of  the  Babylonian  con- 
quest of  Egypt. 
44.     Denunciation  of  Jewish  idolatry  in  Egypt,  etc. 

3.  (Obad.  vss.  10-14,  Edom's  treacherous  conduct  denounced.) 

4.  Prophetic  messages  of  Ezekiel,  Mch.-Apr.  572  B.C.  The  con- 
stitution of  restored  Israel.     Chaps.  40-48. 

Chaps.  40-43.  The  description  and  dimensions  of  the  Temple. 
44-46.  The  ministers  and  regulations  of  the  Temple. 
47-48.     The  Temple  and  the  land. 

5.  EzekieVs  supplemental  message  on  Egypt.     Mch.-Apr.  570  B.C. 
Chap.  29  :  17-21.   The  promise  of  Egypt  to  Nebuchadrezzar,  etc. 

iii.  Composition  of  the  historical  sources  and  literary  produc- 
tions. 

a.  Of  the  section  2  Ki.  25 :  22-26,  vs.  22  =  R^^ .  ^ss.  23-26  = 
a  condensation  of  Jer.  40  :  7-43  :  7  by  R^l  ! 

h.  The  narrative  sections  from  Jer.,  given  in  the  Biblical  outline 
above  ( =  39  :  10  ff.),  are  assigned  by  recent  scholars  with  a  great 
deal  of  probabihty  to  Baruch.     Cf .  pp.  193,  3.  a. ;  105. 

c.  On  the  omission  of  Jer.  39 :  10-13  from  the  LXX,  cf.  p.  167, 
iii.  d. 

d.  For  the  difficulties  in  comparing  the  narratives  in  Jer.  39 : 
11-14  and  40 :  1  ff.  with  solutions  cf.  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  For  the  possibihty  of  Jer.  42 :  7-22  being  later  in  form  than 
the  rest  of  the  section  cf.  HDB,  ii.  5726  (Davidson),  etc. 

/.  By  some  scholars  the  section,  Ezek.  27  :  96-25a,  is  regarded 
as  an  interpolation  because  it  interrupts  the  context.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  chapter  describes  a  ship,  while  these  vss.  portray 
a  trading  city  and  its  customers.  But  as  the  style  is  Ezekiel's,  if 
this  section  did  not  belong  originally  to  the  description,  it  may  well 


192      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

have  been  inserted  subsequently  by  the  prophet  himself.     Cf. 
further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  beginning  of  this  period  dates  from  586  b.c,  when  Jeru- 
salem was  destroyed  by  the  Chaldeans  and  large  numbers  of  the 
people  were  deported  to  Babylonia  (cf.  2  Ki.  25).  The  j^ear  c. 
538  B.C.  marks  its  close,  when  permission  was  given  the  Exiles  by 
Cyrus  to  return  to  their  own  land.  The  year  581  b.c.  is  based  on 
the  reference  in  Jer.  52  :  30  to  a  deportation  of  Jews  from  Judea  in 
that  year  (23rd  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  reign),  which  many  scholars 
think  was  occasioned  by  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (cf .  Jer.  41,  p.  190). 
It  may  be  added  that  others  (e.g.  Davidson)  think  Gedaliah's 
death  occurred  c.  586  b.c.  (cf.  Davidson,  Isa.  TB,  220). 

b.  On  the  reading  17th  instead  of  7th  year  in  Jer.  52 :  28,  cf.  p. 
168,  iv.  b. 

c.  The  prophecy  of  Obadiah  has  been,  and  still  is  by  a  number  of 
scholars  (e.g.  Driver,  G.  A.  Smith,  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs. 
86  f.  etc.),  dated  in  the  early  Exile.  While  the  post-exihc  period 
seems  on  the  whole  a  more  probable  time  for  its  origin  (see  pp.  212- 
215),  practically  all  scholars  agree  that  vss.  10-14  refer  to  the 
treacherous  conduct  of  Edom  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  586  b.c.  As  these  vss.  describe  that  experience  so 
vividly  they  are  included  in  the  outline  above,  p.  191,  ii.  3. 

d.  The  date  586  (585)  b.c.  for  the  section,  Ezek.  26  : 1-28  :  19,  is 
derived  from  26 :  1  (=  11th  year,  i.e.  from  the  1st  captivity,  597 
B.C.).  The  month  of  the  year  is  not  given,  but  it  must  have  been 
after  the  4th  (June- July),  the  mo.  in  which  Jerusalem  was  taken 
(cf .  2  Ki.  25  :  2  ;  Jer.  52:6f.). 

e.  In  Ezek.  32,  vss.  1-16  date  from  Feb.-Mch.  585-584  b.c. 
(vs.  1  =  12th  mo.).  Vss.  17-32  are  a  fortnight  later  than  vss. 
1-16  (cf.  vs.  17),  if  the  same  mo.  is  meant  in  vs.  17  as  in  vs.  1. 
Note  also  that  in  vs.  1  the  Syriac  reads  the  11th  instead  of  the  12th 
year,  and  in  vs.  17  the  LXX  reads  the  1st  mo.  of  the  12th  year. 
The  combination  of  these  readings  gives  an  interval  of  six  weeks 
between  the  two  sections  of  the  chap.  Cf .  Introds.  and  Comms.  in 
loc.  for  discussion. 

/.  Ezek.  40-48  dates  from  the  1st  mo.  (cf.  40:  1)  =  Mch.-Apr. 
Some,  however,  think  that  here  the  prophet  refers  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical year,  the  beginning  of  which  =  the  7th  mo.  and  10th  day 
of  the  civil  year  (cf.  Lev.  25  :  9)  =  Sept.-Oct.  Cf .  Skinner,  Ezek. 
384,  n.  1. 

g.  Ezek.  29 :  17-21  dates  from  the  1st  mo.  (cf.  vs.  17)  =  Mch.- 
Apr. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE     193 


SECTION  II,  570-538  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  the  Exiles,  570-538  B.C. 

2  Ki.  25:27-30  (//Jer.  52:31-34).      The  release  of  Jehoiachin. 
Feb.-Mch.  560  (559)  b.c.     See  also  p.  199,  iv.  a. 

ii.   Literary  productions,  570-538  B.C.,  e.g.  those  c.  560  ff.  b.c. 

1.  The  Law  of  Holiness,  Leviticus  17-26.     c.  560-550  (?)  B.C. 

2.  The  book  of  Lamentations,     c.  580-550  (?)  b.c. 

Chaps.  1-5.     The  fate  of  Jerusalem  and  the  people  bewailed,  etc. 

3.  Miscellaneous  literary  work  of  the  first  half  of  the  Exile,  586- 
c.  560  (or  550)?  b.c. 

a.  The  composition  of  the  biographical  sections  in  the  book  of 
Jeremiah  {e.g.  as  found  in  chaps.  26,  27-29,  34-44  in  the  main,  etc.), 
perhaps  by  Baruch,  and  the  combination  of  these  with  Jeremiah's 
prophecies  =  fu'st  half  of  the  Exile. ^ 

b.  Deut.  32:  1-43,  ''The  Song  of  Moses."  c.  560-550  (?)  B.C. 
=  Jehovah's  past  favors  and  Israel's  ingratitude,  etc. 

c.  Literary  activity  of  the  Deuteronomic  compilers,  c.  560  ( ?)  ff .  B.C. 
(a)  The  completion  of  Deuteronomy :  i.e.  to  chaps.  5-26  +  28 

( =  D),  the  addition  (D^)  of  chaps.  1-4  ( =  an  historical  introduc- 
tion to  the  book) ;  chaps.  27  +  29-31  ( =  hortatory  additions) 
and  chaps.  32-34  (except  32 :  48-52 ;  34 :  la,  56,  7-9  =  P)  = 
poems,  etc.,  incorporated.^ 

(6)  The  combination  of  JE  in  the  Hexateuch  and  D  by  R^  = 
JED. 

(c)  The  Deuteronomic  redaction  (R^,  or  D^)  of  the  book  of 
Judges  [e.g.  the  prefixing  of  the  introductory  section  (largely)  to 
the  history  of  the  Judges,  viz.  chaps.  2 :  6-3 :  6,  together  with 
other  additions  to  chaps.  3-16  (see  pp.  45  f. ;  50  f.,  iii.  b)] ;  also  the 
Deuteronomic  redaction  (R^,  or  D^)  of  the  books  of  Samuel  =  but 
few  additions ;  see  pp.  54,  ii.  c. ;  75,  iii.  d.  etc. 

(d)  The  second  Deuteronomic  redaction  (R^^)  of  the  books  of 
Kings.     See  pp.  61  f. 

d.  Other  literature  which  may  belong  to  the  early  part  (or  middle) 
of  the  Exile. 

1  "These  narratives  are  founded  almost  everywhere  on  excellent  in- 
formation, which  could  only  have  been  obtained  from  records  made  by 
Jeremiah  or  Baruch  themselves,  or  from  the  statements  of  eyewitnesses." 
Kautzseh,  LOT,  85;  cf.  EBi,  ii.  2081  (Moore).  The  combination  of 
these  narratives  with  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  may  have  taken  place 
later  than  the  Exile.     Cf.  Peake,  Jer.  i.  62. 

2  Many  scholars  hold  the  view  that  chaps.  5-11  were  not  included  in 
the  original  book  of  Deuteronomy  but  were  added  during  the  Exile. 


194      AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

(a)  Pss.  74,  79,  according  to  Kirkpatrick  are  //  to  Lam.  (15  or 
20  years  after  586  b.c). 

Ps.  89  =  possibly  before  561  b.c.  (=  Jehoiachin's  release). 

(h)  The  Servant  poems  =  Isa.  42 :  1-4  (5-9) ;  49 :  1-6  (7-13) ; 
50  :  4-9  (10  f.) ;  and  52  :  13-53  :  12,  according  to  some  scholars 
were  composed  by  an  author  prior  to  Deut.-Isa.  whose  date  = 
565-550  B.C.  Cf .  Whitehouse,  Isa.  ii.  pp.  21  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Exil. 
Prophs.  58.     See  note  and  other  dates  mentioned,  pp.  198  f .,  iii.  k} 

iii.  Composition  of  the  history  and  the  literary  productions,  c. 
560  ff.  B.C. 

a.  2  Ki.  25 :  27-30  probably  was  written  by  the  Deut.  compiler 
of  the  Exile  (R^^).     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

6.  It  is  the  opinion  of  scholars  that  the  most  of  Lev.  17-26  (H) 
has  been  subject  to  a  later  priestly  revision  (R^).  The  following 
=  the  principal  portions  attributed  to  R^,  17 :  1-2,  6,  76,  15-16, 
besides  different  phrases  and  clauses  in  vss.  3-9;  18:l-2a(?); 
19  :  l-2a,  86,  21  f . ;  20  :  l-2a ;  in  chap.  23  (cf .  below  n.  c) ;  chap. 
24  (except  vss.  156-22  =  H) ;  25  (in  part)  .2 

c.  Lev.  23  is  believed  by  scholars  to  contain  two  sources,  — 
laws  from  H  and  P  being  combined  probably  by  a  later  Priestly 
compiler  to  supplement  one  another.  In  H  the  occasion  and  date 
of  the  feasts  are  related  to  the  land  and  agriculture  (cf.  vss.  96- 
20,  22,  396  =  '  Vhen  .  . .  seven  days,"  40-43)  as  in  JE  (Ex.  23  :  15  f.  ; 
34  :  18,  22)  and  D  (Deut.  16  : 1,  9,  13).  In  the  P  sections  (  =  vss. 
l-9a,  21,  23-38,  39a,  39c,  44)  the  occasions  are  regarded  as  arbitrar- 
ily fixed  for  religious  observances.  It  is  to  be  noticed  further  that 
the  content  of  the  H  sections  is  outside  the  subject  of  the  chapter 
as  defined  in  vss.  2,  4  and  37  f.  (viz.  ^'holy  convocations"  =  P). 
Cf.  further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  Several  other  sections  in  the  Pentateuch  have  been  regarded 
by  different  scholars  as  having,  in  more  or  less  marked  degree,  the 
characteristics  of  H.  There  is  difference  of  opinion,  however,  as 
to  the  number  of  such  passages.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
portions  assigned  to  this  source,  Ex.  6  :  6-8 ;  12  :  12  f . ;  31 :  13, 
14a ;  Lev.  10  :  9a,  10  f . ;  11 :  1-23,  41-47  (in  its  original  form,  or 
at  least  vss.  43-45);  Num.  10 :  9  f . ;  15:37-41.  Cf.  LOT,  38, 
59,  151.     EBi,  iii.  2787  (see  full  hst  n.  4),  etc. 

e.  For  the  suggestion  that  the  book  of  Deut.  took  the  place  origi- 
nally occupied  by  the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  at  the  time  of  the 
combination  of  JE  and  D,  cf.  p.  41,  iv.  e. 

1  For  the  remainder  of  the  literature  of  the  period  570-538  b.c,  i.e.  the 
literary  productions  of  556-538  b.c,  see  pp.  195-197. 

2  This  revision  of  H  probably  occurred  when  it  was  incorporated  in 
the  larger  P  Code  prior  to  444  b.c. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE     195 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  Law  of  Holiness  is  also  assigned  by  a  number  of  recent 
scholars  to  the  closing  decades  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  Cf. 
p.  166,  ii.  j. 

b.  While  the  book  of  Lamentations  may  not  have  been  completed 
till  towards  the  closing  years  of  the  Exile,  logically  it  is  connected 
with  the  earlier  years  of  that  period  rather  than  with  the  later, 
i.e.  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.c.  rather  than  with 
the  prophecies  connected  with  the  deliverance  from  Babylon. 

c.  Lam.  3  is  considered  by  a  number  of  scholars  the  latest  of  this 
group  of  poems  on  account  of  its  highly  artificial  structure.  Its 
date  may  be  post-exihc.  Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.  For 
Kent's  dates  for  these  poems,  cf.  p.  183,  n.  ^  For  Cheyne's  classi- 
fication, cf.  p.  270,  n.  ^. 

d.  As  bearing  on  the  date  of  the  additions  to  the  original  book  of 
Deut.,  cf.  the  fact  that  the  Exile  is  presupposed  in  Deut.  4  :  27-31 ; 
29  :  28 ;    and  30  :  1-3. 

e.  Probably  the  Priestly  Code  (P)  was  compiled  in  part  at  least 
during  the  Exile,  though  not  promulgated  till  post-exiUc  times. 
See  pp.  247  f. ;  cf.  244  (6). 

SECTION  II  (cont'd),  570-538  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history,  556  ff.  b.c.     See  espec.  p.  199,  iv.  a. 
ii.   Literary  productions,   570-538   b.c.  ;    e.g.    those  in  556-538 

B.C. 

1.  Brief  (anonymous)  prophetic  messages.     556-549 (?)  b.c. 

a.  Isa.  21 :  1-10.     Vision  of  Babylon's  destruction,  etc. 

b.  Isa.  13  : 1-14 :  23.  Babylon's  downfall  and  Israel's  restora- 
tion, etc. 

c.  Jer.  50 :  1-51 :  58.  Babylon's  impending  destruction  and 
Israel's  release,  etc. 

2.  Prophetic  messages  of  Isaiah  40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah).    c.  540 

B.C. 

Chap.  40.     Jehovah's  restoration  of  the  Exiles  announced,  etc. 

41.  Jehovah,  not  idols,  has   raised  up    the  conqueror 
from  the  east,  etc. 

42.  The   first    Servant   passage,  —  His    character   and 
mission  (vss.  1-9),  etc. 

43 :  1-44 : 5.     Israel    to    be    ransomed    and    restored ; 

Babylon  to  fall,  etc. 
44 :  6-45  :  25.     Jehovah  alone  as  god ;    the  folly  of  idol 

worship,  etc. 


196      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

46.  The  helplessness  of  Babylonian  idols  contrasted  with 
Jehovah's  character,  etc. 

47.  A  prediction  of  Babylon's  humiliation  on  account  of 

its  cruelty,  etc. 

48.  Jehovah's  object  in  giving  or  withholding  predic- 
tions, etc. 

49  : 1-13.  The  second  Servant  passage,  —  His  call  and 
mission  described,  etc. 

49  :  14-50  :  3.  The  return  and  prosperity  of  the  Exiles 
predicted,  etc. 

50:4-11.  The  third  Servant  passage,  —  source  of  His 
strength  in  persecution,  etc. 

51 : 1-52  :  12.  The  righteous  Exiles  exhorted  to  believe 
in  their  restoration  by  Jehovah,  etc. 

52:13-53:12.  The  fourth  Servant  passage,  —  the  ex- 
altation of  the  suffering  Servant. 

54.  Assurance  of  restoration  and  prosperity,  etc. 

55.  Invitation  to  share  in  the  blessings  of  restoration,  etc. 

3.  A  prophetic  fragment  towards  the  end  of  the  Exile,  c.  546-538 
B.C.     Jer.  10  :  1-16.     A  warning  against  idolatry. 

4.  Other  prophetic  fragments  possibly  exilic. 

a.  Zeph.  3 :  14-20  =  prediction  of  the  ideal  future.  Assigned 
by  many  scholars  to  the  close  of  the  Exile  (or  immediately  after) ; 
cf.  p.  157,  V.  d. 

h.  Amos  9:  86-15  (or  vss.  11-15)  =  promise  of  restoration,  etc. 
Cf.  p.  142,  iii.  d. 

c.  Isa.  34-35,  Edom's  punishment  and  Israel's  future  =  towards 
end  of  Exile  (Driver,  Kirkpatrick;  cf.  McCurdy,  etc.).^  For  the 
chronological  setting  of  these  chaps,  in  this  vol.  cf .  pp.  215  f . ;  264, 
iv.  4. 

d.  Zech.  2 :  6-13  =  a  prediction  of  Zion's  future  glory.  As- 
signed to  the  closing  years  of  the  Exile  by  a  number  of  scholars. 
Cf.  p.  254,  iii.  e. 

e.  For  Hsts  of  other  sections  of  prophecy,  which  may  possibly 
be  exilic  or  post-exilic  additions  to  the  prophetic  literature,  cf.  pp. 
306-308. 

5.  Psalms  and  poems  which  possibly  may  be  exilic. 

a.  According  to  McCurdy  the  following  at  least  belong  to  the 
Exile:  22 ;  51 ;  69  ;  71 ;  84  and  102.  Pss.  126  and  137,  which  he 
believes  were  written  in  Palestine  after  the  1st  Return,  c.  537  B.C., 
also  "belong  virtually"  to  the  exilic  period.^ 

1  Cf .  LOT,  226 ;  Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times,  130  £f.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct. 
Prophs.  203.  Moore,  LOT,  155  f.  Note  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  418, 
n.  3  (§  1404)  =  that  chap.  35  at  least  is  exilic;    and  Gray,  Introd.  188 

=  parts  of  chaps.  34  f.,  may  be  exilic. 

2  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  pp.  387  f.  (§  1363). 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   PERIOD   OF   THE   EXILE     197 

h.  The  following  is  Kirkpatrick's  grouping  of  psalnis  of  this 
period :  — 

68  =  probably  the  last  decade  of  the  Exile,  //  to  Isa.  40  ff . 

22  =  possibly  parallel  to  Isa.  53, 

94 ;  possibly,  however,  post-exihc. 

102. 

In  addition  to  the  above  and  Pss.  74,  79  and  89  [cf .  p.  194,  d.  (a)], 
he  also  assigns  to  the  Exile,  71 ;  77;  80;  139  (?  =  possibly  post- 
exihc)  90  (probably)  and  91(?). 

c.  According  to  Briggs  the  following  thirteen  psalms  are  exilic  : 
42-43;  63;  74;  77:1-15;  79;  81:5c-14;  82;  84;  88;  89: 
17-21,  3  f.,  22-45;  90;   137  and  142.^ 

d.  Ex.  15 :  1-18  =  Moses'  Song  of  Triumph,  according  to  some 
scholars  dates  at  the  earliest  from  the  time  of  the  Exile.^  For  its 
chronological  setting  in  this  vol.  see  p.  83,  v.  b. 

e.  2  Sam.  23  :  1-7  =  the  Last  Words  of  David.  Exilic  according 
to  Cheyne.^ 

iii.    Composition  of  the  literary  productions,  556-538  B.C. 

a.  Isa.  14 :  l-4a  (or  vss.  1-3),  on  account  of  its  style,  which  is 
different  from  the  sections  preceding  and  following,  is  considered 
by  a  number  of  scholars  as  editorial.  By  some  {e.g.  Cheyne)  vss. 
22  f.  are  also  attributed  to  the  same  source.  Cf.  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

b.  Jer.  51 :  20-24  interrupts  the  context  and  may  be  an  inter- 
polation. It  is  uncertain  whether  Israel,  Cyrus  or  Babylon  is 
addressed  in  these  vss.  Cf.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  p.  144,  n.  1. 
Others  consider  vss.  15-19  an  interpolation  (cf.  10 :  12-16),  and 
vss.  20-24  as  connecting  logically  with  vss.  13  f.  Cf.  Peake, 
in  loc. 

c.  Isa.  48 :  166-19  is  considered  by  several  scholars  to  be  a  later 
addition  for  the  following  reasons :  (a)  the  tone  of  vss.  17-19, 
reflecting  a  spirit  of  depression,  indicates  a  time  when  there 
was  lack  of  faith  in  immediate  deUverance;  (6)  these  vss.  also 
interrupt  the  natural  connection  between  vss.  12-16a  ( =  promise 
of  dehverance)  and  vss.  20  f.  (=  song  of  triumph) ;  and  (c)  vs. 
166  C'and  now  the  Lord,  etc."),  it  is  claimed,  is  disconnected  with 
what  precedes  and  follows.  Note  that  vs.  17  begins  with  the 
regular  prophetic  formula  of  introduction. 

Skinner  also  regards  vs.  22,  either  as  a  gloss,  or  as  an  editorial 
insertion  on  the  ground  of  its  being  ahen  to  the  context.     He  thinks 

1  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxxix  ff. 

2  Cf.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  160.  Gray,  Introd.  47.  Cornill,  Introd.  118  f., 
540.     McNeile,  Ex.  in  loc,  etc.     See  further  pp.  35  f.,  ii.  b. 

3  Cf.  Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.,  205  f.    Cf.  Kent's  view,  p.  166,  ii.  m. 


198      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

its  right  connection  is  found  in  Isa.  57 :  21.     So  also  Whitehouse. 
Cf.  on  this  chap.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  Other  possible  insertions  in  Isa.  40-48  =  41 :  15  f. ;  42  :  245  ; 
44:9-20  (Cheyne) ;  48 :  16,  2,  36(?),  4,  56,  76,  86-10,  116.  Cf. 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  Isa.  14:4-21  and  Isa.  47  are  'Haunt  songs"  in  the  meter 
characteristic  of  Hebrew  elegy,  e.g.  Lamentations,  cf.  p.  181. 

/.  Isa.  40-48  are  generally  regarded  as  forming  one  leading  section 
of  the  prophecy,  in  which  the  certainty  of  dehverance  from  Baby- 
lon is  emphasized,  —  by  showing  Jehovah's  favor  and  power ;  the 
coming  of  Cyrus  and  the  impending  downfall  of  their  oppressor. 

g.  For  discussion  of  the  Servant  passages,  cf.  below,  n.  k. 

h.  Chap.  50  :  10  f .  are  considered  by  some  scholars  to  be  a  post- 
exilic  addition  relating  to  the  persecution  of  true  believers  (cf .  Isa. 
57:  15  and  66:2).  It'  is  claimed  that  neither  the  thought  nor 
phraseology  are  like  the  other  parts  of  this  prophecy.  Cf .  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

i.  Chap.  52 :  3-6,  owing  to  the  facts  that  (a)  its  form  is  prose, 
while  the  preceding  vss.  are  poetry;  also  (6)  that  the  subject 
changes  suddenly  in  these  vss.,  according  to  some  scholars,  shows 
that  they  are  not  the  original  sequel  of  vss.  1  f .  Cf .  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

j.  Other  vss.  which  may  possibly  be  insertions  in  Isa.  49-55  = 
51:11,  15f.(?);  54:15(?);  55:7(?). 

k.  The  Servant  passages  42  :  1-4  (5-9) ;  49  :  1-6  (7-13) ;  50:4- 
9  (10  f .) ;  and  52  :  13-53  :  12,  —  the  vss.  in  parenthesis  according 
to  Cheyne  are  connecting  links  between  the  Servant  passages 
proper  and  their  context,  —  ''present  some  of  the  most  knotty 
problems  of  0.  T.  Introduction;  almost  everything  is  matter  of 
controversy  —  date,  authorship,  relation  to  the  rest  of  Isa.  40-55 
.  .  .  ;  almost  every  possible  view  has  been  held  on  each  of  these 
points."  ^  (a)  The  more  common  view  is  that  they  were  written 
by.the  author  of  the  rest  of  the  prophecy ;  ^  (6)  some  hold  that  they 
are  the  work  of  a  different  exilic  prophet  and  were  incorporated 
by  Deut.-Isa. ;  ^  (c)  while  according  to  others  they  originated  after 
the  Exile  and  were  inserted  by  an  editor.* 

Cheyne  formerly  held  that  properly  speaking  the  Servant  poems 
must  all  at  one  time  have  been  independent  and  separate  from  their 
present  contexts,  but  on  the  ground  of  the  fact  that  they  have 
exerted  such  an  influence  on  the  sections  following  them,  he  con- 

1  Cf.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  51. 

2  Cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  290  f.  Gray,  Introd.  187.  Workman,  Servt.  of 
Jeh. ;    LOT,  etc. 

3  Cf.  Bennett;  Whitehouse,  etc.     See  p.  194,  ii.  d.  (6). 

4  Cf.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  xv  f .,  93 ;  EBi,  ii.  2205  f.  (Cheyne) ; 
see  also  EBi,  iii.  3801  (Duhm).     See  p.  256,  ii.  2.  5. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   PERIOD    OF   THE   EXILE     199 

eluded  that  they  could  not  very  well  have  been  inserted  by  any  one 
but  by  the  author  of  chaps.  40-55  himself.  He  considered  them 
exihc  and  that  possibly  they  might  have  been  written  by  the 
author  of  the  main  prophecy.^  Cf.,  however,  his  more  recent 
view  of  the  Servant  passages  as  later  insertions.^ 

Kent,  who  assigns  chaps.  40-55  along  with  56-66  to  the  age 
preceding  Nehemiah,  attributes  the  Servant  passages  to  the 
author  of  the  prophecy  (cf.  Sermons,  etc.). 

I.  Isa.  49-55  seem  the  natural  sequel  of  chaps.  40-48  and  may 
well  be  regarded  as  written  by  the  same  author.  Cf .  (a)  the  deso- 
late condition  of  Judah  (49  :  19  ;  51:3;  51 :  17-52  :  2) ;  also 
(5)  the  promise  of  the  return  of  the  Exiles  [49 :  22-26 ;  51 :  11 ; 
52  :  11  f.  (understood  of  Babylon) ;  55  :  12] ;  and  (c)  the  facts  of 
the  preceding  section  are  taken  for  granted,  viz.  Jehovah's  suprem- 
acy; the  doom  of  Babylon  and  the  certainty  of  release  for  the 
captives.  In  this  section,  chaps.  49-55,  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
future  of  the  Exiles,  by  exhorting  them  to  prepare  themselves  to 
take  advantage  of  their  opportunity  to  return. 

According  to  some  authorities  chaps.  49-55  were  written  by  the 
same  author  somewhat  later  than  chaps.  40-48,  after  Cyrus  had 
given  permission  to  the  Exiles  to  return  home.^  ^ 

ni,  Jer.  10:  11,  which  is  in  Aramaic,  is  generally  considered  a 
later  addition  to  the  section,  as  it  interrupts  the  connection  of 
thought.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

iv.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  historical  background  to  the  closing  period  of  the  Exile^ 
which  is  reflected  in  the  prophetic  literature  given  above  on  pages 
195  f.,  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows.  Cyrus  became 
king  of  Anshan,  a  small  state  in  northwestern  Elam,  in  559 
B.C.  He  gained  possession  of  the  Median  kingdom  in  549  b.c. 
by  rebelling  against  Astyages,  his  overlord,  whom  he  defeated  and 
captured  by  the  aid  of  the  Median  subjects  in  the  army,  who  turned 
against  Astyages.  Then  followed  the  consolidation  of  his  acquired 
kingdom  and  the  beginning  of  his  brilliant  career  of  conquest: 
Mesopotamia  (547  b.c.)  ;  Lydia,  whose  king  was  Croesus  (546 
B.C.) ;  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  ^gean  coast  (546  b.c.)  ;  bar- 
barous hosts  in  the  East  (545  ff.  b.c.)  ;   and  Babylon  in  538  B.C. 

h.  Many  scholars  assign  Isa.  21 :  11-17  relating  to  Dumah 
( =  Edom)  and  Arabian  tribes  to  the  same  date  as  vss.  1-10. 
Vss.  16  f.  in  prose  are  considered  by  some  recent  scholars  as  a  later 
addition.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

1  Cf.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  307  f.,  309,  277  ff. 

2  Cf.  refs.  under  n.  \  p.  198.  ^  Cf.  espec.  Cornill,  Introd.  290. 
^  For  an  excellent  summary  of  the  recent  criticism  of  Isa.  40  flf.,  see 

LOT,  244  ff. 


IX.  A.  The  Persian  Period.  Introductory  and  Explana- 
tory Notes  to  the  History  and  Literature  of  this 
Period 

The  history  and  literature  relating  to  the  Persian  period 
are  found  in  the  historical  works  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah ; 
cf .  also  2  Chr.  36 :  22-23 ;  the  prophetical  writings  of 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  chaps.  1-8,  Malachi,  Isaiah  56-66  (?), 
Obadiah,  Isaiah  34-35 (?),  Joel  and  Isaiah  24-27 (?) ;  poeti- 
cal writings,  —  psalms  and  compilations  of  Psalms,  and  the 
book  of  Job ;  the  final  compilation  of  the  Priestly  Code  (P) 
and  the  book  of  Ruth.^ 

1.  Historical  Writings 

The  historical  material  of  this  period  covers  only  a  limited 
portion  of  it,  and  in  order  to  form  an  adequate  conception 
of  the  history  of  the  Jews  during  a  large  part  of  this  time 
much  has  to  be  derived  and  inferred  from  the  prophetic 
and  other  writings. 

Within  the  historical  limits,  for  example,  marked  by  Ezra- 
Nehemiah,  viz.  c.  537  B.C.  ( =  the  return  under  Sheshbazzar  = 
Zerubbabel(?),  cf.  Ezra  1)  and  432  b.c.  (=  the  second  visit  of 
Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem ;  cf.  Neh.  13  :  6),  while  the  historical  facts 
related  cover  only  about  one  tenth  of  this  time,  ''it  is  possible  with 
the  aid  of  the  prophetic  and  poetic  literature  of  the  period  to  form 
a  tolerably  clear  and  connected  idea  of  the  times.''  ^ 

A.  2  Chr,  36 :  22-23  ;  //  Ezra  1 : 1-3. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  2  Chr.  36 :  23  ends  in  the  middle  of  a 
sentence  —  vs.  236  being  parallel  to  Ezra  1 :  3a. 

1  Practically  all  these  literary  productions  (including  the  main  sources 
of  Ezra-Neh.)  had  their  origin  in  this  period.  See,  however,  on  Psalter 
and  P  Code,  pp.  224  fP. ;  228  ;  232  f. ;  195,  iv.  e. ;  247  f. 

For  other  literature  possibly  belonging  to  this  period,  cf .  pp.  253,  ii.  3 ; 
255  f.,  ii.  2 ;  264  f.,  iv.  6,  10-13  ;  270,  ii.  4. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  i.  8216,  8246  (Batten). 

200 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF  PERSIAN   PERIOD     201 

B.  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  As  was  previously  noticed,  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  formed  originally  with  First  and  Second 
Chronicles  a  single  book  (cf.  p.  63),  belonging  to  the  second 
historical  series  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  pp.  1  f.).  The 
standpoint  of  the  compiler  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  accordingly 
is  much  like  that  of  the  Chronicler,  viz.  marked  by  special 
interest  in  the  rehgious  institutions  and  observances  of  the 
Jewish  people. 

Like  the  other  historical  books  previously  considered, 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  derived  from  different  sources. 
Of  these  (a)  the  most  important  are  the  personal  Memoirs 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (designated  E  and  N  respectively), 
which  are  characterized  by  the  use  of  the  first  person,  and 
which  include  Ezra  7  :  27-8  :  34  ;  9  :  1-15  ;  10  (?)  ;  and 
Neh.  1:1-7:5;   7  :  6-73a(?) ;   chaps.  11-13  in  part.^ 

In  addition  (b)  are  the  portions  in  Aramaic,  viz.  Ezra 
4  :  8-6  :  18  and  7  :  12-26,  which  may  have  been  derived 
from  some  Aramaic  historical  work,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions and  adaptations  ;  ^  and  possibly  (c)  official  documents, 
also  from  a  distinct  source ;  e.g.  such  lists  as  Neh.  7  :  6-73 ; 
11:3-36,  etc. 

Some  authorities  give  more  sources,  others  fewer.  The  personal 
Memoirs  are  commonly  recognized.  In  reference  to  the  others, 
*'in  some  cases  we  must  be  content  with  probabilities  and  in  others 
must  confess  ignorance."  ^ 

The  material  belonging  to  the  compiler,  whose  style  closely 
resembles  the  Chronicler  (Ch.),  comprises  only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  books.  It  is  a  question  how  far  it  is  based  on 
historical  documents  and  how  far  on  oral  tradition. 

The  methods  of  the  Chronicler,  i.e.  in  reconstructing  and  recast- 
ing, as  seen  in  1-2  Chr.  are  not  so  marked  in  Ezra-Nehemiah.  It  is 
the  view,  however,  of  some  scholars  that  Ezra's  Memoirs  either 
belong  to  Ch.  or  have  been  recast  by  him.     Cf.  below,  (b). 

^  For  characteristics  of  the  style  of  the  Memoirs  of  Ezra-Nehemiah, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  two  sections,  cf.  Ryle,  Ezra,  etc.,  xviii  f.  LOT, 
553. 

2  While  this  is  the  \'iew  generally  held  by  modern  scholars  of  these 
Aramaic  sections,  cf.  a  more  conservative  position  in  reference  to  their 
integrity  in  Davies,  Ezra,  etc.,  13  ff. 

3  Cf.  HDB,  i.  822  a  (Batten). 


202     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

In  reference  to  the  dates  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  the  following 
facts  may  be  noted,  (a)  The  Memoirs  of  Nehemiah  are 
commonly  recognized  as  a  first-hand  source  of  the  greatest 
historical  worth,  belonging  to  his  times,  445-432  b.c.^ 
(6)  The  Memoirs  of  Ezra  have  usually  been  considered  of 
equal  value  with  those  of  Nehemiah,  dating  from  his  day, 
458  ff.  B.C.,  though  a  number  of  scholars  regard  them  as  of 
later  date  and  secondary  worth. 

The  Memoirs  of  Ezra  have  in  recent  years  been  subjected  to 
severe  criticism.  Some  scholars  {e.g.  Torrey)  consider  them  en- 
tirely the  work  of  Ch.,  on  account  of  similarity  of  style.  Others 
(e.g.  Kent)  think  they  were  possibly  drawn  by  Ch.  in  part  at 
least  from  an  existing  Midrash.  Contra,  it  is  maintained  :  (a)  that 
the  similarity  of  style  may  be  due  either  to  the  common  standpoint 
of  Ezra  and  Ch.  (i.e.  priestly),  or  to  the  action  of  Ch.  in  conforming 
the  language  of  E  to  his  own,  as  he  incorporated  the  Memoirs,  — 
their  viewpoint  being  so  much  alike ;  and  (6)  the  argument  from 
probability,  viz.  'Hhe  writer  who  so  faithfully  transcribed  the 
memoirs  of  Nehemiah"  would  not  likely  have  '^ invented  so  vivid, 
coherent  and  circumstantial  a  narrative  for  Ezra  in  the  first 
person." 

(c)  The  Aramaic  sections,  in  their  original  form,  may 
reasonably  be  assigned  to  a  date  relatively  near  to  the  events 
described  by  them  ;  according  to  good  authorities,  c.  450  B.C. 
The  sources  are  thus  of  the  greatest  historical  value. 

On  account  of  the  Ch.  influence  in  the  Aramaic  sections,  some 
scholars  {e.g.  Moore)  have  assigned  them  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
Persian  or  beginning  of  the  Greek  periods,  i.e.  before  or  after  c. 
332  B.C.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  maintained  that  in  these  sec- 
tions the  Jewish  coloring  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  Ezra  and 
other  Jews  formulated  the  letters  and  edicts,  which  were  accepted 
by  the  king.^ 

The  date  of  the  compilation,  however,  belongs  undoubtedly 
long  after  the  times  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (  =  458-432  B.C.), 
as  the  following  facts  go  to  prove  :   (a)  use  of  the  expression 

1  From  Neh.  5 :  14  some  (e.g.  Cornill,  Introd.  245)  have  inferred  that 
the  Memoirs  may  have  been  compiled  considerably  later  than  432  b.c. 
The  view  commonly  held  is  that  their  date  is  practically  as  given  above. 
Of.  430-425  B.C.  for  both  the  Memoirs,  Ezra  and  Neh. ;  Gray,  Introd.  101. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2083  f.  (Moore).  See  contra,  McFadyen,  Introd.  344  f. 
Note  also  LOT,  548  f . 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF  PERSIAN  PERIOD     203 

''king  of  Persia"  (Ezra  1 :  1  f.,  8 ;  3:7;  4:3,  5,  etc.),  which 
would  have  been  an  unnecessary  addition  on  the  part  of  a 
contemporary  writer,  or  of  a  writer  at  any  time  in  the  Persian 
period.  It  is  also  contrary  to  the  usage  of  the  times,  as  the 
Persian  kings  styled  themselves  as  ''king  of  Babylon,"  "the 
great  king, "  etc.^  (6)  In  the  list  given  in  Neh.  12,  Jaddua  is 
mentioned  (vss.  10  f.)  as  belonging  three  generations  after 
Eliashib,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Nehemiah  (cf .  Neh.  13  :  4, 
28).  It  is  known  that  Jaddua  was  High  Priest  351-331  b.c.^ 
And  (c)  the  mention  in  Neh.  12  :  22  of  "Darius  the  Persian, " 
which  from  the  context,  it  is  clear,  refers  to  Darius  Codo- 
mannus,  the  last  king  of  Persia,  336(335)-331  B.C.  These 
facts  point  to  the  years  after  the  close  of  the  Persian  period, 
and  this  conclusion  harmonizes  with  the  spirit  and  stand- 
point of  the  compiler,  which  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
editor  of  Chronicles. 

In  addition  to  (a)  above,  cf.  the  fact  that  in  the  Memoirs  of 
Ezra-Nehemiah,  which  belong  to  the  Persian  period,  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  speaking  personally,  refer  naturally  to  the  Persian 
monarch  as  ^'the  king"  simply  (e.g.  Ezra  7  :  27  f . ;  8:1,  22,  25,  36, 
etc.,  Neh.  1 :  11,  etc.).  Note  also  in  the  Aramaic  document  the 
same  usage  (e.g.  Ezra  4  :  8,  11,  etc. ;  5  :  6  f.,  etc.). 

In  Neh.  12:22,  the  title  'Hhe  Persian"  also  indicates  a  date 
subsequent  to  the  Persian  period. 

Among  other  data  which  may  be  referred  to  for  the  date  of  the 
compilation  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  are  :  (d)  the  use  of  the  phrase  ''the 
days  of  Nehemiah"  (Neh.  12:26,  47),  from  which  the  natural 
inference  is,  that  the  time  of  writing  must  have  been  when  Nehe- 
miah's  age  was  looked  upon  as  some  distance  in  the  past ;  (e)  the 
fact  that  the  period  of  over  fifty  years  between  Ezra  6  and  7  is 
covered  by  the  expression  ''after  these  things"  (7:1),  can  be  more 
naturally  explained  as  the  phrase  of  a  later  compiler  than  as  the 
wording  of  Ezra  or  a  contemporary ;  and  (f)  the  position  of  Ezra 
4 :  6-23,  which  scholars  generally  consider  to  be  chronologically 
misplaced,  can  be  more  easily  accounted  for  in  the  same  way  as 
the  work  of  a  later  editor. 

That  the  compiler  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  belongs  to  the  same 
school  of  thought  as  the  Chronicler  (Ch.)  (who  possibly  are  to  be 
identified)  is  shown  by :  (a)  the  interest  manifested  in  statistics 
and  genealogy   as    in    Chronicles    (e.g.    Ezra    1:9-11;   7:1-6; 

1  See  espec.  LOT,  546,  n.*  and  554  =  additional  n.  to  p.  546. 

2  Cf.  Josephus,  Ant.  xi.  8,  §§  4,  7. 


204      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

8 : 1-14 ;  Neh.  3 ;  7  :  6-73,  etc.) ;  (6)  the  detail  with  which  reli- 
gious services  and  observances  are  described  as  in  Chronicles 
(e.g.  Ezra  3  :  1-7,  8-13  ;  Neh.  7  :  73-8  :  12,  etc.) ;  (c)  the  special 
prominence  given  the  Levites  and  other  Temple  attendants,  as 
singers,  Nethinim,  etc.,  as  in  Chronicles;  e.g.  Levites,  over  60 
times  (Ezra  2  :  40,  70;  3:8,  12,  etc.  cf.  about  100  times  in  Chr.) ; 
only  twice  mentioned  in  Sam.  (IS.  6:  15;  2S.  15:24),  and  once 
in  Kings  (1  Ki.  8:4);  singers  frequently  (Ezra  2 :  41,  65,  70, 
etc.) ;  also  Nethinim  (Ezra  2  :  43,  58,  70,  etc.),  a  term  found  out- 
side of  Ezra-Neh.  only  in  1  Chr.  9:2;  and  (d)  Ukeness  of  style, 
e.g.  ''fathers'  houses"  (Ezra  2:59;  10:16,  etc.,  cf.  more  than 
20  times  in  Chr.) ;  ''heads  of  fathers'  houses"  (Ezra  1:5;  2 :  68, 
etc.,  cf.  more  than  20  times  in  Chr.) ;  "house  of  God"  (Ezra 
1:4;  2  :  68,  etc.,  cf .  more  than  30  times  in  Chr.),  etc.^ 

The  same  date  as  that  to  which  the  compilation  of  Chron- 
icles is  assigned  may  accordingly  be  given  to  that  of  Ezra- 
Nehemiah,  viz.  300-250  b.c.^  ^ 

2.   Prophetical  Writings 

A.  Haggai.  This  short  prophecy  consists  of  the  substance 
of  four  addresses  delivered  by  Haggai  to  the  Jews  in  Jeru- 
salem in  the  early  part  of  the  Persian  period.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  a  feature  not  found  hitherto  in  this  class  of  writ- 
ings, viz.  careful  chronological  arrangement  and  exact  dating. 

An  exception  among  previous  prophetical  writings,  however,  is 
to  be  noticed,  viz.  Ezekiel,  though  in  that  book  the  chronological 

*  For  the  view  of  different  standpoints  in  the  compilation  of  Chr.  and 
Ezra-Neh.  and  hence  the  work  of  different  redactors,  cf.  Davies,  Ezra, 
etc.,  16  ff. 

2  For  the  view  that  Ezra-Neh.  as  a  whole  dates  probably  shortly  be- 
fore 400  B.C.,  with  some  additions  at  a  later  time,  cf.  Davies,  Ibid.,  20. 

3  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Ezra- 
Nehemiah,  LOT,  540  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  117  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd. 
332  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  240  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  121  ff.,  245  f.  Gray, 
Introd.  97  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  126  ff.  HDB,  i.  821  ff.  (Batten).  EBi, 
n.  1478  ff.  (Kosters  and  Cheyne) ;  2083  f.,  2085  (Moore).  Introds.  in 
Comms.  on  Ezra-Neh.,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Batten);  Camb.  B.  (Ryle) ; 
Expos.  B.  (Adeney) ;  Cen.  B.  (Davies).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  109  f. 
Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc.,  537  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  345  ff.,  382  ff., 
cf.  419  ff.,  422  f.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  8,  29  ff.,  339  ff.  Kent,  Jew. 
People,  101  ff.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church2,  132  f.  McFadyen, 
Hists.  314  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  10  f.,  15.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life, 
213  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  209,  242  f.  Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  290 
ff.,  306,  etc. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF  PERSIAN   PERIOD     205 

arrangement  is  not  carried  out  in  the  detailed  manner  in  which  it 
appears  in  Haggai. 

It  seems  probable  that  this  prophecy  was  committed  to 
writing  soon  after  Haggai  had  given  his  messages,  either  by 
the  prophet  himself  or  by  a  contemporary. 

This  prophecy  is  dated  from  the  accession  of  Darius  I 
(=  Hystaspis),  522(521)-486(485)  B.C.  (cf.  Hag.  1 :  1,  etc.). 
The  divisions  of  the  prophecy  with  the  corresponding  dates 
are  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Chap.  1  =  Aug.-Sept.  520  b.c.  (cf.  vss.  1  and  15). 

b.  Chap.  2:1-9  =  Sept.-Oct.  520  b.c.  (cf.  vs.  1). 

c.  Chap.  2 :  10-19  =  Nov.-Dec.  520  B.C.  (cf.  vs.  10). 

d.  Chap.  2 :  20-23  =  the  same  date  (cf.  vs.  20). 

The  months  indicated  in  this  prophecy  (cf.  Hag.  1  :  1,  etc.)  are 
reckoned  from  the  spring,  as  during  the  Exile  the  year  was  changed 
from  the  pre-exilic  custom  of  beginning  in  the  autumn,  to  the 
spring  (March- April).  This  change  was  probably  brought  about 
by  Babylonian  influence.  From  the  time  of  the  Exile  also  the 
Babylonian  names  of  months  are  frequently  found  in  the  Biblical 
writings,  e.g.  1st  Nisan  =  March- April  (cf.  Neh.  2:1);  2nd 
lyyar  =  April-May  (not  in  O.  Test.) ;  3rd  Si  van  =  May- June 
(Esth.  8:9);  4th  Tammuz  =  June-July  (not  in  O.  Test.) ;  5th 
Ab  =  July-August  (not  in  O.  Test.) ;  6th  Elul  =  Aug.-Sept. 
(cf.  Neh.  6 :  15) ;  7th  Tishri  =  Sept.-Oct.  (not  in  0.  Test.) ;  8th 
Marchesvan  =  Oct.-Nov.  (not  in  O.  Test.) ;  9th  Kislev  (Chislev  or 
Chisleu)  =  Nov.-Dec.  (cf.  Zech.  7:1;  Neh.  1:1);  10th  Tebeth 
=  Dec-Jan.  (cf.  Esth.  2:16);  11th  Shebat  =  Jan.-Feb.  (Zech. 
1:7);  12th  Adar  =  Feb.-March  (cf .  Ezra  6 :  15  and  frequently 
in  Esther).!  2 

1  Cf.  HDB,  iv.  762  ff.  (Abrahams).  EBi,  iii.  3192  ff. ;  iv.  5366  (Marti), 
etc. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Haggai, 
LOT,  343  f.  Bennett,  Introd.  254  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  103  f.,  196. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  219  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  358  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  226  f. 
Moore,  LOT,  207  f.  HDB,  ii.  279  ff.  (Cooke).  EBi,  ii.  1935  ff.  (W.  R. 
Smith  and  Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Haggai,  espec.  Int.  Crit. 
(MitcheU) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Camb.  B. 
(Perowne) ;  Cen.  B.,  vol.  2  (Driver) ;  Bible  Handbooks  (Dods).  Ben- 
nett, Primer,  etc.,  79  f.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  26  f.,  323  ff.  Hunter, 
After  Exile,  i.  133  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  349  ff.,  353  f.  Kent, 
Jew.  People,  139  f.,  141  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  30,  469,  496  ff.  Sanders, 
etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  204  ff.  Kirkpatriek,  Doct.  Prophs.  413  ff.,  421  ff.  Farrar, 
Minor  Prophs.  185  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  149  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig. 
Life,  8  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  65  ff.,  75  ff.  Sanders,  Hist. 
Hebrs.'233,  235  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  278  f. 


206      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

B.  Zechariah,  Chaps.  1-8.  The  prophecy  of  Zechariah 
(chaps.  1-8),  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Haggai  (cf.  Ezra 
5  :  1  and  6  :  14),  is  also  characterized  by  precise  chronological 
headings.  The  first  person  is  used  largely  throughout  these 
chapters,  which  consist  mostly  of  descriptions  of  a  series  of 
visions.  It  is  not  unhkely  that  they  were  committed  to 
writing  soon  after  the  latest  portion  recorded  was  uttered. 

The  divisions  and  dates  of  the  prophecy  are  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Chap.  1:1-6=  Oct.-Nov.  520  b.c.  (cf.  vs.  1) ;  i.e, 
between  Hag.  2 : 1-9  and  Hag.  2 :  10-19  (cf.  p.  252,  ii.  1). 

h.  Chaps.  1 :  7-6  :  15  =  largely  visions.  Jan.-Feb.  519 
B.C.  (cf.  1 :  7). 

c.  Chaps.^7-8.    Nov.-Dec.  518  b.c.  (cf.  7  : 1).^ 

C.  Malachi.  This  prophecy,  though  bearing  the  name  of 
Malachi,  is  probably  to  be  considered  an  anonymous  produc- 
tion. Unlike  the  prophecies  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  it  is 
marked  by  absence  of  chronological  headings  of  any  kind, 
and  the  date,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  determine  it  definitely, 
is  based  upon  internal  evidence. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  reasons  for  considering  the  proph- 
ecy of  Malachi  anonymous :  (a)  the  peculiar  words  of  the  title 
(1 : 1),  ''The  burden"  (or ''oracle")  "of  the  word  of  Jehovah,  etc.," 
a  form  which  is  found  elsewhere  only  in  Zech.  9 :  1  and  12 :  1, 
both  headings  of  anonymous  writings  immediately  preceding 
Malachi;  (6)  the  inference  from  the  LXX  heading  (=  "Oracle 
of  the  word  of  the  Lord  by  the  hand  of  his  messenger")  that  it  was 
not  considered  a  proper  name  when  that  translation  was  made ; 
and  (c)  the  same  inference  also  from  the  Targum  of  Jonathan 
[  =  "by  the  hand  of  Malachi"  (or  "my  messenger")  "whose  name 
is  called  Ezra  the  scribe"].  This  explanation  has  been  given,  viz. 
that  the  prophecy  being  originally  anonymous  received  in  time  the 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Zechariah 
1-8,  LOT,  344  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  256  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  104,  196. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  222  ff.  CorniU,  Introd.  361  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  227  f. 
Moore,  LOT,  208  fP.  HDB,  iv.  967  ff.  (Nowack).  EBi,  iv.  5391  ff. 
(Wellhausen).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Zech.,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Mit- 
cheU) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Camb.  B.  (Pe- 
rowne) ;  Cen.  B.,  vol.  2  (Driver) ;  Bible  Handbooks  (Dods).  Bennett, 
Primer,  etc.,  80  f.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  26  f.,  326  ff.  Hunter,  After 
Exile,  i.  145  ff.,  152  ff.,  187  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  354  ff.  Kent, 
Jew.  People,  139,  142,  144  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  30,  469,  496  ff.  San- 
ders, etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  204  ff.,  209,  212  ff.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs. 
413  ff.,  423  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  196  ff.  CorniU,  Prophs.  Isr.  152  ff. 
Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  8  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  65  ff.,  78  ff. 
Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  233  f .,  236  ff.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  278  ff. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF    PERSIAN   PERIOD     207 

same  title  as  Zech.  9 :  1  and  12 :  1,  and  subsequently  the  word 
^'Malachi"  (=  Hebr.  for  *'my  messenger")  was  inserted,  being 
borrowed  from  the  text  (cf.  3:1;  also  2 :  7  and  Hag.  1 :  13). 

The  following  are  the  facts  from  which  the  date  is  inferred  : 
(a)  the  Jewish  community  is  under  a  Persian  viceroy 
(1:8;  cf.  Hag.  1:1;  Neh.  5  :  14 ;  12  :  26) ;  {b)  the  Temple 
is  completed  (3  :  10  ;  cf.  1  :  10 ;  3:1),  but  so  long  previously 
that  the  first  enthusiasm  has  been  followed  by  carelessness 
and  worldliness  (1 :  6  ff.) ;  and  (c)  the  power  which  exercises 
authority  over  them  is  evidently  not  tyrannical,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  favorable  attitude  toward  outside  nations 
in  the  prophecy  (cf.  1:11).  The  reign  of  Artaxerxes 
(Longimanus),  465 (464) -425 (424)  B.C.,  during  which  the 
Jews  were  specially  favored,  harmonizes  with  these  facts. 

In  addition  (d)  the  social  conditions  reflected  in  the  proph- 
ecy also  point  to  this  time :  e.g.  marriages  with  the  heathen 
and  half-heathen  women  of  the  land  are  common  (2 :  10-16, 
cf.  Ezra  9:2;  10:3,  16-44;  Neh.  10:30;  13:23  ff.) ; 
remissness  in  paying  the  Temple  tax  (3 : 7-12,  cf.  Neh. 
10  :  32-39  ;  13  :  4-14),  etc.,  i.e.  abuses  with  which  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  had  to  deal. 

According  to  some  authorities,  however,  Mai.  2 :  10-16  does  not 
refer  to  the  question  of  divorce,  but  to  the  idolatry  of  the  people, 
under  the  figure  of  violating  the  marriage  bond.^ 

The  conquest  of  Edom  implied  in  1 :  2-5  is  referred  by  a  number 
of  scholars  to  the  subjugation  of  that  country  by  the  Arabs  (Naba- 
teans),  during  the  Exile  or  subsequently.  This  would  harmonize 
with  the  date  of  the  prophecy  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  Cf.  further 
on  this  event,  pp.  212  f. 

Difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  whether  the  prophecy 
belongs  (a)  before  the  coming  of  Ezra,  458  B.C.  (Ezra  7  :  7) ;  ^ 
or  (b)  before  the  mission  of  Nehemiah,  445  B.C.  (Neh.  1:1; 
2:1);^  or  (c)  shortly  before  or  shortly  after  Nehemiah's 
second  visit  to  Jerusalem  in  432  b.c.  (Neh.  13  :  6).^ 

1  Cf.  H.  P.  Smith,  0.  T.  Hist.  361,  n.  2.  EBi,  iii.  2908  f.  (Torrey). 
Moore,  LOT,  214. 

2  Cf.  G.  A.  Smith.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  HDB,  iii.  219a 
(Welch).     Cornill,  Introd.     Kautzsch,  LOT.  Gray,  Introd.,  etc. 

3  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.    J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Mai.    H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist. 
*  Driver,  LOT,  but  cf.  his  Mai.  (Cen.  B.)  =  contemporary  of  Ezra- 

Nehemiah.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  Cf.  Torrey 's  view  =  1st  half 
of  the  4th  cen.  b.c.  (EBi,  iii.  2909  f.). 


208      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

A  date  just  before  458  B.C.,  i.e.  c.  460  B.C.  is  on  the  whole 
the  one  which  seems  most  probable. 

Some  of  the  reasons  which  seem  more  favorable  to  the  view 
that  the  prophecy  should  be  placed  before  458  B.C.  are :  (a)  the 
absence  of  any  reference  in  the  prophecy  to  the  reforming  work  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  of  any  indication  of  joy  which  must  have 
been  awakened  in  the  Jewish  community  by  the  rebuilding  of  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  in  445  B.C.  by  Nehemiah  (cf.  Neh.  chaps.  3-6) ; 
(6)  the  custom  of  bringing  a  gift  to  the  Persian  governor  (1:8)  can- 
not well  refer  to  Nehemiah  (cf .  his  statement,  Neh.  5  :  14-18) ;  and 
(c)  the  reference  to  the  Jews  divorcing  their  wives  in  order  to  marry 
the  heathen  women  of  the  land  (2 :  10  ff.)  seems  to  point  to  the 
beginning  of  this  practice,  rather  than  to  Ezra's  time  when  he 
found  it  a  settled  custom  (cf.  Ezra  9  f.).  While  the  opinion  of 
scholars  differs  as  to  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  (d)  the  legal 
allusions  in  the  prophecy,  the  more  common  view  is  that  the 
affihation  in  general  is  with  the  earher  Codes,  especially  Deuter- 
onomy, rather  than  with  the  Priestly,  e.g.  the  priesthood  as  sons  of 
Levi  (Mai.  2  :  4,  8 ;  3:3,  cf.  Deut.  33  :  8  and  the  expression  "the 
priests  the  Levites"  common  in  Deut.) ;  and  the  custom  of  con- 
sulting the  priesthood  for  oral  decisions  (Mai.  2:7;  cf .  Deut. 
17  :  9,  etc. ;  also  the  usage  recognized  in  the  time  of  Haggai-Zech- 
ariah,  cf.  Hag.  2:11;  Zech.  7:3).  Cf.  also  Mai.  1 :  Sa  with  Deut. 
15 :  21,  etc.  If  Deut.  is  the  recognized  legal  code,  this  would 
favor  a  time  at  least  before  445  b.c,  the  date  of  the  promulgation 
of  the  Priestly  Code.     Cf .  further,  p.  245.i  ^ 

D.  Trito-Isaiah  =  Isaiah  56-66.  While  the  great  major- 
ity of  scholars  to-day  are  agreed  in  assigning  at  least  chaps. 
40-55  of  Isaiah  to  the  closing  years  of  the  Exile,  there  is 

1  Cf.  for  a  different  view  of  the  bearing  of  the  resemblances  to  Deut. 
upon  the  date  of  Malachi,  EBi,  iii.  2909  f.  (W.  R.  Smith  and  Torrey). 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Malachi, 
LOT,  355  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  264  &.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  105  f.,  196. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  234  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  372  fe.  Gray,  Introd.  231  f. 
Moore,  LOT,  212  ff.  HDB,  iii.  218  ff.  (Welch).  EBi,  iii.  2907  ff.  (W.  R. 
Smith  and  Torrey).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Malachi,  espec.  Int.  Crit. 
(J.  M.  P.  Smith) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Camb. 
B.  (Perowne) ;  Cen.  B.,  vol.  2  (Driver) ;  Bible  Handbooks  (Dods).  Ben- 
nett, Primer,  etc.,  81.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  29  f.,  402  ff.  Hunter,  After 
Exile,  ii.  247  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  360.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  111  f., 
162  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  31,  472,  cf.  496  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii. 
237  ff.,  240  ff.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  494  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs. 
223  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  155  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  19  f. 
Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  88  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  244,  247  f. 
Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  287  ff. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN    PERIOD     209 

much  divergence  of  opinion  among  them  in  reference  to  the 
remaining  chapters  of  that  book  (chaps.  56-66),  to  which  the 
title  ' '  Trito-Isaiah  "  has  been  given  by  Duhm.  It  has  been 
the  view  of  modern  scholars  until  recent  years  that  this 
section  belonged  to  the  same  author  and  occasion  as  chaps. 
40-55,  and  that  opinion  is  still  maintained  by  good  authorities. 

Cf.  Driver,  who  refers  to  Isa.  40-66  as  forming  "a  continuous 
prophecy."  ^  This  position  is  also  assumed  by  Davidson.^  Note, 
however,  his  latest  view  on  the  subject,  viz.  ''  chaps.  Ivi-lxvi  .  .  . 
may  presuppose  a  people  settled  in  Judaea,  in  other  words,  a  people 
partially  returned  from  Exile."  ^ 

At  the  same  time,  among  those  holding  the  position  of  the 
general  unity  of  chaps.  40-66,  it  has  been  the  conclusion  of  a 
number  that  certain  parts  of  chaps.  56-66,  interrupting  the 
connection  of  thought,  originated  in  pre-exilic  times,  or  at 
least  were  a  recollection  of  them. 

Cf.  Driver,  according  to  whom  56  :  9-57  :  11a  and  59  :  3-15  belong 
to  the  age  of  Jeremiah ;  also  G.  A.  Smith,  who  formerly  assigned 
56 :  9-chap.  57  to  a  time  between  Isaiah's  death  and  the  Exile.'* 

Recently,  however,  the  theory  has  been  advanced,  which 
has  been  accepted  by  many  scholars,  that  Isaiah  chaps. 
56-66  belong  to  post-exilic  times.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  reasons  cited  for  this  conclusion :  ^  (a)  the  existence 
of  the  Temple  is  apparently  presupposed  {e.g.  56  :  7  ;  60  :  7  ; 
62 :  9,  and  especially  65 :  11  and  66  :  6),  which  points  to  a 
date  after  516  (515)  b.c,  when  it  was  rebuilt  (cf.  Ezra 
6  :  15  f.).  (b)  The  fact  that  more  prominence  is  given  to  the 
sacrificial  system  (e.g.  56  :  7  ;  60  :  7  ;  62  :  9  ;  66  :  20),  to  the 
priesthood  (e.g.  66:21,  cf.  61:6),  and  to  religious  institu- 
tions and  ceremony  (e.g.  Sabbath,  56  :  2,  6  ;  58  :  13  f . ; 
66:23;  cf.  Neh.  10:31;  13:15  ff. ;  cf.  also  continuous 
worship,  58  :  2  and  62  :  6)  than  in  Isa.  40-55  favors  the  post- 
exilic  period,     (c)  In  keeping  with  this  chronological  inference 

1  Cf.  LOT,  230. 

2  Cf.  Davidson,  O.  T.  Prophc.  chap,  xv  (pp.  242  ff.). 

3  Cf.  Davidson,  Isa.  (TB),  xvii. 

4  Cf .  LOT,  244.     Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times,  187  ff.     G.  A.  Smith,  Isa. 
ii.  18  f.,  408  f.,  423  f. 

5  The  statement  of  reasons  here  presented  is  based  closely  upon  the 
excellent  summary  found  in  Skinner,  Isa.  ii.  pp.  Ivi  ff. 


210      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

is  the  reference  to  a  partial  restoration  of  the  exiled  Israelites, 
with  the  promise  that  still  others  are  to  be  brought  back 
(cf .  especially  56  :  8  ;  also  60  :  4,  8  and  66  :  20,  which,  from 
this  standpoint  of  interpretation,  refer  to  those  Exiles  who 
are  as  yet  unrestored).  And  (d)  the  social  conditions  re- 
flected in  these  chapters  harmonize  with  those  which  are 
known  to  have  existed  after  the  Exile ;  e.g.  the  '^oppression 
of  the  poor  by  the  rich  or  of  slaves  by  their  masters  "  (cf. 
58  :  3-6,  9 ;  59  :  3  f.,  13  ff .  with  Neh.  5  and  Mai.  3:5);  the 
leaders  of  the  community  described  as  greedy,  worthless, 
self-indulgent,  etc.,  a  situation  answering  to  what  is  known 
of  the  worldly-minded  priests  and  others,  who  sought  their 
selfish  advantage  in  marriage  alliances  with  the  surrounding 
half-heathen  peoples  in  the  time  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  (cf. 
56  :  10-12  with  Ezra  9  : 1  ff . ;  Neh.  13  :  4,  28) ;  and  indica- 
tions of  two  parties,  —  one  strict  and  zealous  for  Jehovah, 
the  other  indifferent  to  all  religious  matters,  a  condition 
which  existed  in  the  first  century  after  the  Restoration 
(cf.  57:1,  15,  20;  59:4-8,  18;  65:8,  13  ff. ;  66 : 5  with 
Mai.  3:5,  15-18). 

In  addition  to  (6)  above,  note  the  interest  in  fasting,  58 :  1  ff., 
cf .  Zech.  7  :  1  ff. ;  8  :  18  f . 

Besides  the  mention  of  the  unworthy  priests,  see  under  (d)  above, 
cf.  the  mercenary  prophets  described  in  Neh.  6 :  10-14. 

The  social  conditions  [cf.  above  (d)]  may  as  well  indicate  the 
pre-exilic  period,  and  they  have  been  used  as  arguments  in  favor 
of  that  date  for  the  different  sections  in  which  they  are  found,  but 
they  are  equally  appropriate  to  the  conditions  of  post-exilic  times 
as  shown  in  the  references  above. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  two  other  lines  of  argument  are 
to  be  considered,  viz.  (e)  frequent  allusions  are  made  to 
idolatrous  practices  indulged  in  by  those  who  in  a  way  are 
connected  with  the  Jews  and  yet  are  their  most  bitter  oppo- 
nents (e.g.  57  :  3-13  ;  65:  1-7;  66:3  f.,  17;  cf.  66  :  5  with 
67  :  4  ;  cf .  also  57  :  12  =  regarding  themselves  as  righteous, 
with  57 :  8  =  their  unfaithfulness  to  Jehovah,  and  65 :  11 
=  their  forgetfulness  of  Mount  Zion).  These  references, 
it  is  maintained,  could  hardly  be  to  pure  heathen  but  most 
naturally  describe  the  Samaritans  (or  ''those  circles  out  of 
which  later  sprang  the  Samaritan  community '0>  who  were 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     211 

connected  with  the  worship  of  Jehovah  (2  Ki.  17 :  33),  but 
who  after  the  Return  did  all  in  their  power  to  weaken  the 
Jews,  from  the  time  that  their  overtures  were  rejected  (cf. 
Ezra  4:1  ff.,  etc.).^  And  (/)  the  evident  perplexity  caused 
by  the  delay  of  the  promised  restoration  of  Israel's  fortunes, 
and  the  explanation  that  it  was  on  account  of  the  moral 
condition  of  the  people  (cf.  59 :  1-15  with  a  similar  feehng 
in  Zech.  1 :  12  ff . ;  chap.  8 ;  Hag.  2  :  6  ff . ;  also  Mai.  2  :  17  ff. ; 
3 :  1  ff.,  13  ff.),  indicate  the  same  period. 

Further,  it  is  claimed  {g)  that  these  chapters  are  marked 
by  difference  of  style  from  chaps.  40-55 ;  ^  also  (h)  in  the 
connection  of  thought,  —  chaps.  40  ff .  being  well-ordered  and 
connected,  while  56  ff.  are  more  broken  in  their  arrangement, 
the  sections  being  more  detached. 

Though  some  of  the  sections  in  this  portion  of  prophecy 
seem  to  harmonize  well  with  an  exilic  date  {e.g.  chaps.  58, 
60,  61-62),  i.e.  parallel  to  chaps.  40-55,  on  the  whole  the 
view  that  it  belongs  to  post-exilic  times,  and,  more  partic- 
ularly, that  it  reflects  conditions  similar  to  those  in  Malachi, 
has  much  to  commend  it,  in  consideration  of  the  facts  cited 
above.  Difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  whether  it  belongs 
in  whole  or  in  part  before  or  after  the  coming  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  and  variant  views  are  held  in  reference  to  the 
question  of  unity  of  authorship  of  these  chapters.  While, 
therefore,  the  exact  time  to  which  this  section  of  prophecy 
belongs  cannot  with  certainty  be  established,  a  date  within 
the  years  460-445  seems  in  view  of  all  the  facts  a  reasonably 
probable  one.^  ^ 

The  view  of  Kent  is  to  be  noted,  who  holds  that  the  whole  section, 
chaps.  40-66,  comes  from  the  same  author,  of  which  chaps.  56-59 
and  63-66  belong  shortly  before  the  time  of  Nehemiah  and  the 

1  Cf.,  however,  the  statement  in  Moore,  LOT,  159  f. 

2  Cf.  Wade,  Isa.  Ixxi  f.     Whitehouse,  Isa.  vol.  2,  pp.  235  f.,  etc. 

3  In  favor  of  dating  this  section  of  prophecy  prior  to  Nehemiah  = 
445  B.C.  are  the  references  to  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  as  still  unrestored 
(60 :  10,  cf.  58  :  12).     See  Neh.  2-4. 

^  This  is  the  view  of  Cornill,  Introd.  Skinner,  Isa.  Whitehouse,  Isa. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  Gray,  Introd.  Wade,  Isa.  ( =  in  the  first  half, 
perhaps  in  2nd  quarter  of  the  5th  cen.  b.c).  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs. 
(=470-420  B.C.).  Cheyne  ( =  age  of  Ezra-Neh.,  cf.  his  Jew.  ReUg. 
Life).  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  493  ff.,  4976  (G.  A.  Smith),  etc.  See  summary  in 
LOT,  244  ff.     Wade,  Isa.  Ixxiii,  etc. 


212      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

remainder  of  the  prophecy  somewhat  earlier.     See  further  on 
Kent's  views  at  the  end  of  n.  ^  below. 

The  section  63 :  7-64 :  12  is  considered  by  many  scholars  an 
insertion  in  the  prophecy,  either  of  earher  or  later  date  than  the 
rest  of  the  chaps.     Cf.  pp.  253,  ii.  d.  (c) ;  260,  v.  a. ;  270,  ii.  4.  a}  ^ 

E.  Obadiah.  This  prophecy,  which  is  the  shortest  O.  T. 
book,  contains  no  chronological  heading,  and  the  problem  of 
determining  its  date  is  a  very  complicated  one. 

One  of  the  most  definite  historical  references  in  the  proph- 
ecy is  to  the  treacherous  conduct  of  the  Edomites,  who, 
when  some  foreign  power  gained  possession  of  Jerusalem, 
rejoiced  in  its  disaster ;  taking  part  also  in  the  plunder  of 
the  city  (vs.  13)  and  cutting  off  the  escape  of  fugitives  (vs. 
14).  The  circumstances  described  here  seem  to  answer  best 
to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans  in  586  B.C. 
(cf.  2  Ki.  25:3  ff.),  and  this  view  is  now  quite  generally 
accepted  by  scholars. 

Another  implied  fact,  according  to  many  authorities,  is 
the  dispossession  of  Edom  by  some  hostile  power,  which 
previously  was  confederate  with  it  (vss.  5-7).  It  is  known 
that  by  312  B.C.  the  Nabateans  had  gained  possession  of 
Edom's  territory  (cf.  Diodorus  Siculus,  xix.  94),  but  it  is 
thought  by  many  that  as  early  as  the  Exile  the  process  of 
dispossessing  may  have  begun,  as  the  Edomites,  it  is  known, 
had  already  at  that  time  encroached  upon  Judea  (cf.  Ezek. 
35  :  10,  12  ;  36  :  5).  The  inference  is  that  this  invasion  of 
Judea  was  occasioned  by  the  fact  that  they  were  being 

1  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  27  ff.,  336  ff.,  381  ff. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Isaiah 
56-66,  LOT,  244  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  193  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  98  f.,  196. 
MeFadven,  Introd.  135  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  289  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  185  ff. 
Moore,*^LOT,  159  ff.  HDB,  ii.  493  ff.,  4976  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  extra  vol. 
709a  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  2206  f.  (Chevne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on 
Isa.  40  ff.,  espec.  West.  C.  (Wade) ;  Camb.  B.,  vol.  2  (Skinner) ;  Cen.  B., 
vol.  2  (Whitehouse) ;  SBOT,  99  ff.,  190  ff.  (Cheyne).  Cheyne,  Introd. 
Isa.  xxxi  ff.,  310  ff.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  76.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs. 
ii.  252  ff.,  265  ff.,  272  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  302  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew. 
ReUg.  Life,  27-29,  45,  92  ff.,  etc.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  103  ff. 
Kent,  Jew.  People,  112  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  22.  Davidson,  Isa.  (TB), 
xvii.     Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  243  f .,  224  ff.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  280  ff. 

Note  that  some  recent  scholars  (e.g.  H.  P.  Smith  and  Kent)  place 
Isa.  40-55  as  well  as  chaps.  56-66  in  this  post-exiHc  period.  Kent  holds 
that  chaps.  56-66  (in  the  main)  were  written  somewhat  later  than  the 
preceding  section,  but  prior  to  445  b.c.  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  27  ff., 
381  ff.,  etc.     H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  370  ff. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     213 

pressed  by  foes  in  their  own  territory.  This  conclusion 
together  with  the  vividness  of  the  description  of  Edom's 
treacherous  conduct  (vss.  10-14)  are  strong  grounds  for  an 
exihc  date  of  the  prophecy,  to  which  it,  in  large  part,  is 
assigned  still  by  a  number  of  scholars  [e.g.  Driver,  G.  A. 
Smith,  Bennett  (=  his  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  86  f.),  etc.]. 

The  problem  of  dating,  however,  is  complicated  by  the 
question  of  the  unity  of  the  contents,  and  this  in  turn  is 
bound  up  in  the  relation  of  this  prophecy  to  other  prophetic 
writings.  Thus,  the  first  part  of  Obadiah  and  a  portion  of 
Jeremiah  49  are  closely  parallel,  which  has  been  variously 
explained  as  a  borrowing  of  the  former  from  the  latter,  or 
by  the  latter  from  the  former,  or  by  both  from  an  earlier 
writing.  Cf.  explanations  of  the  parallel  sections  Isa. 
2  :  2-4  and  Micah  4  : 1-3.     See  p.  144,  iii.  d. 

Note  the  parallelism  of  Obad.  vss.  1-4  with  Jer.  49 :  14-16 ; 
of  vss.  5  f .  with  Jer.  49  :  9-lOa  ;  of  vs.  8  with  Jer.  49  :  7  ;  of  vs.  9a 
with  Jer.  49  :  226. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  a  great  majority  of  scholars  that  the 
Obadiah  section  represents  the  more  original  (logical)  form 
of  the  material  common  to  the  two  writings.^  From  this 
different  conclusions  have  been  drawn  :  — 

a.  Many  of  those  dating  the  prophecy  as  a  whole  in  the 
Exile,  and  some  of  those  who  consider  it  post-exilic  (e.g. 
Selbie,  Kautzsch,  Cornill,  etc.),^  favor  taking  vss.  1-9  (or 
10)  (cf.  vss.  1-6  =  G.  A.  Smith)  as  an  independent,  pre- 
exilic  prophecy  borrowed  in  both  Jeremiah  and  Obadiah,  for 
the  following  reasons  :  — 

(a)  The  section  Jer.  46-49  is  dated  in  604  B.C.  (cf.  46:2). 
Obad.  vss.  10-14  imply  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  586  B.C., 
and,  as  noticed  above,  the  majority  of  critics  consider  that  the 
material  common  to  the  prophecies  is  found  in  its  more  original 
form  in  Obadiah.  On  the  basis  of  these  data  neither  prophet  could 
have  borrowed  from  the  other^  but  the  material  common  to  both 
must  have  existed  independent  of  them  prior  to  the  Exile ;  (6)  in 
Obad.  1-9  there  are  no  references  to  the  specific  circumstances  of 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.c.  ;  and  (c)  the  difference  in  point 

1  Cf.,  however,  the  view  of  Bewer,  Obad.  (Int.  Crit.),  3,  33  ff. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  iii.  578  f.  (Selbie).  Kautzsch,  LOT,  133.  Cornill,  Introd. 
335  f. 


214      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

of  view,  which,  it  is  claimed,  exists  between  the  two  sections  of 
Obadiah ;  viz.  while  both  agree  in  the  fact  that  Edom  is  to  be  pun- 
ished, in  vss.  1-9  it  is  to  be  accomplished  by  the  nations  (vs.  1), 
which  are  Jehovah's  instruments,  and  by  treacherous  allies  (vs.  7) ; 
whereas  in  vss.  10  ff.,  Edom  is  to  fall  with  other  heathen  nations  in 
the  day  of  Jehovah's  universal  judgment  upon  them  (vss.  15  ff.). 

h.  Recent  criticism,  however,  favors  dating  Obadiah  in 
post-exilic  times.  Compare  the  similar  attitude  toward  the 
Edomites  in  Malachi  (1 :  1  ff.),  c.  460  B.C.,  and  Isa.  34  f., 
c.  450-400  B.C.  The  chronological  problem  involved  in 
Jer.  46  :  2  [cf.  above  a  (a)]  is  explained  by  the  theory  that  the 
material  of  Jer.  49  as  a  whole,  or  at  least  in  the  verses  found 
also  in  Obadiah,  is  much  later  than  604  B.C.,  and  hence  could 
have  been  borrowed  easily  from  the  post-exilic  Obadiah. 

With  this  theory  of  date  there  is  found  another  view  of  the 
logical  divisions  of  the  prophecy  from  that  noticed  above. 
Wellhausen's  suggestion  has  met  with  much  favor  by  recent 
scholars  that  there  is  a  two-fold  division  of  the  Biblical 
material,  viz.  vss.  1-14  +  156,  the  theme  of  which  is  disaster 
upon  Edom,  and  vss.  15a  +  16-21,  whose  subject  is  universal 
judgment,  of  which  that  on  Edom  is  a  part,  followed  by 
restoration  of  the  Jewish  exiles.^  But  in  reference  to  the 
composition  of  these  sections  and  their  relation  to  each  other 
there  is  considerable  diversity  of  view. 

According  to  Kent,  whose  analysis  differs  in  some  details  from 
that  given  above,  Obadiah  is  the  author  of  both  sections,  the  whole 
dating  between  500-445  b.c.^ 

Bewer,  who  holds  that  'Hhe  more  original  text  of  the  common 
material  is  found  in  the  Jeremiah  section,"  thinks  that  Obadiah 
wrote  in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  cen.  b.c,  quoting  from  an  older 
(pre-exihc)  prophecy  in  vss.  1-4,  8-9  with  comments  by  himself 
in  part  in  vss.  5-7  to  which  he  added  vss.  10-14  +  156.  To  this  a 
double  appendix  =  15a  +  16-18  and  19-21  (possibly  both  from 
the  same  author)  was  attached  in  the  age  of  Nehemiah  or  soon 
after  by  a  different  prophet.^ 

Others  take  the  first  section  vss.  1-14  +  156  (in  the  main)  as 
post-exilic  (1st  half  of  the  5th  cen.)  and  the  rest  at  some  undeter- 
mined later  period.^ 

1  There  are  certain  variations  in  this  analysis  as  given  by  different 
recent  authorities,  but  there  is  substantial  agreement  in  the  main. 

2  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  399.  ^  cf.  Bewer,  Obad.  3  f.,  8  f. 
*  Cornill,  Introd.  336.     McFadyen,  Introd.  194  f. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     215 

Cheyne  dates  at  least  vss.  15-21  as  late  as  c.  350  b.c.  possibly,  on 
the  basis  largely  of  identifying  Sepharad  (vs.  20)  with  Saparda 
(or  Cparda),  a  district,  it  is  claimed,  first  held  by  Cyrus,  c.  550  ff. 
B.C.,  whither  he  thinks  there  may  have  been  a  deportation  of 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus.^ 

It  is  to  be  noted  further  that  some  scholars  are  of  the 
opinion  that  Joel  quotes  from  Obadiah  in  its  present  form. 
If  this  view  is  correct,  it  determines  the  completion  of  Obadiah 
before  400-360  b.c.  ( =  the  date  assigned  to  Joel. 

Cf.  Obad.  vs.  10  with  Joel  3  :  19 ;  vs.  11  with  3  :  3,  etc. ;  vs.  15 
with  3  :  14,  1 :  15 ;  vs.  17  with  2  :  32,  3  :  17.  Notice  especially  vs. 
17  quoted  in  Joel  2 :  32  with  the  phrase  ''as  Jehovah  hath  said." 
This  ''makes  it  almost  certain  that  he  used  Obadiah."  ^ 

The  dating  of  the  prophecy  in  the  main  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury B.C.  is  a  significant  point  of  agreement  among  these 
recent  students  of  the  problems  of  the  book,  and  to  this 
period  it  may  tentatively  be  assigned  after  Malachi  and 
before  Joel,  between  450  and  400  b.c.  The  vivid  character 
of  the  description  in  vss.  10-14  may  be  explained  as  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  was  an  experience,  the  memory  of  which 
would  naturally  be  kept  fresh  by  constant  recounting.^ 
The  questions  of  borrowing  from  an  earlier  prophecy  and  of 
later  additions  are  minor  problems,  in  reference  to  which 
there  exists  at  present  considerable  difference  of  view,  as 
indicated  in  the  survey  given  above.^ 

F.  Isaiah,  chaps.  34-35.^  The  date  of  these  chapters,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  determined,  is  derived  from  the  following 
facts :  (a)   the  intense  hostility  expressed  towards  Edom 

1  Cf.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  311  f.     EBi,  iii.  3458  f.  (Cheyne). 

2  and  3  Cf .  Bewer,  Obad.,  8  f . 

^  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Obadiah, 
LOT,  318  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  243  f.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  133. '  McFadyen, 
Introd.  193  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  334  fif.  Gray,  Introd.  213  ff.  Moore, 
LOT,  198.  HDB,  iii.  577  ff.  (Selbie).  EBi,  iii.  3455  ff.  (Cheyne).  In- 
trods.  in  Comms.  on  Obad.,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Bewer) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk. 
of  XII,  vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Cen.  B.,  vol.  1  (Horton).  Bennett,  Primer, 
etc.,  47.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  399  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  86  f. 
Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  33  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  175  ff.  San- 
ders, etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  67  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  310  ff.  Cornill, 
Prophs.  Isr.  165.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  28  f.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  10  f.,  26. 
Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  243  f.,  246  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  250. 

^  It  is  generally  allowed  among  scholars  that  Isa.  34  and  35  belong  to- 
gether, having  the  same  date  and  author.  For  a  different  view,  cf. 
McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  418,  n.  3  (§  1404).     See  also  p.  266,  v.  c. 


216      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

(34 :  5  ff.)j  which  points  to  an  age  as  late  at  least  as  the  Exile. 
At  that  time  the  vindictiveness  of  the  Jews  was  especially 
aroused  by  the  attitude  of  the  Edomites  towards  them,  in 
connection  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C. 
(cf .  Ezek.  25 :  12  ff . ;  35 : 1  ff .,  note  vss.  5, 10  ff .,  cf .  Ps.  137  :  7  ; 
and  especially  Obad.  vss.  10-14).^  (6)  The  promise  and 
picture  of  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  exiles  (chap.  34) 
presuppose  a  time  subsequent  to  586  B.C.  And  (c)  the  Uter- 
ary  features  of  the  chapters  resemble  not  the  authentic 
prophecies  of  Isaiah,  but  such  late  writings  as  Isa.  13  f. ; 
40-55;  56-66   (cf.  also  similarity  of  ideas). 

Cf.  the  resemblance  between  Isa.  34  :  2-4  and  Isa.  13  :  5,  9-13 ; 
also  between  34  :  11-15,  17  and  13  :  19-22 ;  also  34  in  general  and 
Isa.  63  :  1-6 ;  between  35  :  3-5  and  40  :  1  f .,  9 ;  42  :  7,  16 ;  between 
35  :  6  f.  and  43  :  19  f . ;  48  :  21 ;  49  :  10  f .,  etc. ;  between  35  :  10 
and  51 :  3,  10  f . ;  61 :  7 ;  62  :  12. 

On  the  basis  of  such  data  many  scholars  assign  these 
chapters  to  the  closing  years  of  the  Exile,  a  conclusion  which 
has  much  to  favor  it.  On  the  other  hand  (a)  the  fact  that 
these  chapters  are  based  upon  late  exilic  and  even  post-exilic 
writings  (cf.  above),  it  is  claimed,  requires  a  date  later  than 
the  Exile.  With  this  harmonizes  (b)  the  further  fact  that 
in  this  period  also  the  Edomites  were  regarded  with  hos- 
tihty  (cf.  Mai.  1:2-5;  and  Isa.  63  :  1-6). 

While  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  decide  between  the  two 
periods,  the  preference  is  given  in  this  volume  to  the  later 
one.  It  seems,  however,  impossible  to  determine  the  exact 
post-exiHc,  historical  setting  of  these  chapters.  Quite  possi- 
bly it  is  subsequent  to  Malachi.  A  tentative  date  may  be 
assumed,  c.  450-400  B.C.,  but  with  the  recognition  that  it 
may  be  earlier,  or  later. 

Some  scholars  find  a  further  confirmation  of  the  post-exilic  origin 
of  these  prophetic  messages  in  (c)  the  alleged  appeal  to  proph- 
ecy as  Scripture  (34 :  16 ;  cf.  Dan.  9:2),  which  would  naturally 
point  to  a  late  date.     This  interpretation,  however,  is  not  certain. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  post-exiHc  times  the  return  predicted 
in  chap.  35  is  that  of  the  Jews  who  were  still  in  dispersion.     It  is 

1  While  Obadiah  is  dated  in  this  vol.  as  a  post-exilic  prophecy,  vss. 
1(>-14  are  regarded  by  practically  all  scholars  as  referring  to  the  conduct 
of  the  Edomites  when  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  in  586  b.c.     Cf.  p.  192,  iv.  c. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     217 

also  claimed  that  the  indications  of  the  chapters  imply  that  the 
home  of  the  writer  was  in  Palestine,  not  in  Exile. ^ 

G.  Joel.  This  prophecy  has  no  chronological  heading 
and  its  date  accordingly  must  be  determined  by  the  allusions 
which  it  contains.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more 
important  data :  (a)  the  leaders  mentioned  are  the  elders 
and  priests  (1 : 9,  13  f. ;  2 :  16  f.),  no  reference  being  made 
to  king  or  princes  ;  ih)  neither  Syria,  Assyria  nor  Babylonia 
(Chaldea),  which  in  succession  were  prominent  in  prophetic 
literature  from  the  eighth  century  onward,  is  alluded  to  in 
Joel.  (Note  that  Babylon  is  mentioned  as  late  as  Zechariah, 
520-518  B.C. ;  e.g.  2  :  6  f . ;  cf.  1 :  12  f. ;  5  :  5  ff.,  11,  ^^Shinar" 
=  Babylon.)  Aiid  (c)  Egypt  and  Edom  are  condemned 
for  the  murder  of  innocent  Jews  (3  :  19). 

These  facts,  it  is  claimed  by  many  scholars,  favor  a  pre- 
exilic  date,  especially  the  early  years  of  Joash  of  Judah 
(836-796  B.C.),  when  Jehoiada  the  priest  was  guardian 
(2  Ki.  12  :  2).  This  reign  would  account  for  the  prominence 
of  the  priesthood  in  the  prophecy,  and  the  absence  of  any 
reference  to  the  king.  The  mention  of  Egypt  and  Edom  is 
accounted  for  by  the  invasion  by  the  former  under  Shishak 
in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  (1  Ki.  14  :  25  ff.),  a  century  earlier, 
and  by  the  rebellion  of  the  latter  in  the  time  of  Jehoram, 
grandfather  of  Joash  (2  Kj.  8 :  20  ff.).  The  early  origin  of 
the  prophecy  would  explain  the  fact  that  Syria,  Assyria,  etc., 
are  not  mentioned,  as  these  powers  had  not  come  in  con- 
tact as  yet  with  Judah.^ 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  mention  of  Syrians  in  2  Ki.  12  :  17  f. 
was  later  in  the  reign  of  Joash. 

Another  argument  employed  in  favor  of  this  early  time  is  the 
position  of  the  prophecy  in  the  O.  Test.,  among  the  pre-exilic 
prophetic  writings,  viz.  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos.  But  cf.  contra, 
Obadiah  (=  post-exilic)  and  Jonah  (=  Greek  period),  which 
come  in  order  before  Micah  ( =  8th  cen.  b.c). 

1  Cf.  further  in  reference  to  Isa.  34-35,  Introds.  and  Comms.  on  Isa. 
in  loc.  See  also  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  494  fP.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist. 
379  f .  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  23.  Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times,  130  fif.  Kirk- 
patrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  203,  n.  C.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  pp.  272  fp., 
282.     Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  243  f.,  247. 

2  Among  recent  writers  favoring  the  pre-exilic  dating,  cf.  HDB,  ii. 
672  ff.  (Cameron),  where  an  excellent  presentation  of  the  arguments  for 
this  conclusion  may  be  found. 


218     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

On  the  other  hand  the  trend  of  recent  scholarship  is 
strongly  in  favor  of  a  post-exilic  date,  as  it  is  held  that  these 
references  agree  as  well  with  this  later  period,  and  in  some 
respects  even  better.  Thus  in  the  Persian  period  the  High 
Priest  came  in  time  to  be  the  leading  Jewish  official,  which  is 
in  keeping  with  the  prominence  given  the  priesthood  in  this 
prophecy.  The  condemnation  of  Edom  harmonizes  better 
with  the  later  date,  as  many  references  are  found  in  exilic 
and  post-exihc  literature  to  an  intense  feeling  of  hostility 
against  Edom  (cf.  Ezek.  35  f. ;  Ps.  137;  Obad.,  etc.).  The 
condenmation  of  Egypt  may  be  a  reminiscence  of  older 
prophecies,  or  be  ^^  mentioned  merely  as  the  typical  example 
of  a  power  hostile  to  Judah."  The  absence  of  allusion  to 
Syria  can  be  accounted  for  as  well  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
late  date  as  from  that  of  the  time  of  Joash. 

Possibly  the  references  both  to  Edom  and  Egypt  are  based  on 
earlier  prophecies;  cf.  Egypt  (Ezek.  29 : 9  ff. ;  32:  15),  and 
Edom  (cf.  Ezek.  35:4,  7,  etc.). 

Note  also  the  mention  of  the  ''elders"  alone  (1 :  14,  R.  V.  marg.). 
They  are  never  alluded  to  in  pre-exilic  prophecy  as  the  only  leading 
civil  authority  in  the  nation  (cf.  Isa.  1 :  10,  23,  etc. ;  Mic.  3:1^ 
9,  etc.). 

A  post-exihc  date  is  further  strengthened  by  other  lines 
of  evidence  in  this  prophecy,  such  as :  (a)  the  scattering 
of  the  Jews  among  the  nations,  their  territory  being  allotted 
to  other  peoples  (3:2;  cf .  2  :  17,  19),  which  imphes  the  expe- 
rience of  the  Babylonian  captivity;  (b)  the  term  ^ ^Israel,'' 
not  used  in  the  pre-exilic  sense  of  the  Northern  Kingdom 
(which  is  not  mentioned),  but  in  the  post-exilic  usage  of  the 
chosen  people  represented  in  the  Jewish  community  (cf. 
2:23with2:27;  3  : 1  with  3  :  2(?) ;  3  :  166  with  3  :  16a,  17); 
(c)  the  mention  of  the  Greeks  engaged  in  slave  trade  (3 : 6) 
points  to  post-exihc  times,  and  seems  difficult  to  account 
for  on  the  pre-exilic  theory.  These  people  are  first  referred 
to  in  Ezekiel  (cf.  27  :  13,  19  =  ''  Javan  ")•  It  is  known  that 
in  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.C.  Syrian  slaves  were  in 
demand  in  Greece.  And  (d)  absence  of  allusion  to  idolatry, 
and  the  evident  interest  of  the  priests  and  people  in  sus- 
taining the  Temple  services  (1:9,  13 ;  2 :  14)  strongly  favor 
the  time  of  the  post-exilic  community. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OP   PERSIAN   PERIOD     219 

The  expression  "bring  back"  (or  ''again")  "the  captivity  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem"  (3  :  1),  while  it  may  mean  nothing  more  than 
"turn  the  fortune,  etc.,"  ^  in  some  instances  at  least  seems  to  imply 
a  return  from  captivity  (e.g^.  Am.  9  :  14),  and  in  connection  with  the 
mention  of  the  Jewish  dispersion  among  the  nations  here  (3 :  2) 
most  naturally  refers  to  a  full  restoration  of  the  Jews  of  the  captiv- 
ity, to  which  there  seem  numerous  allusions  in  post-exilic  literature. 
It  seems  reasonable,  therefore,  to  use  this  expression  in  support 
of  the  post-exilic  date.^ 

These  facts  taken  together  make  the  post-exilic  theory  of 
the  origin  of  this  prophecy  seem  on  the  whole  the  more 
probable  one. 

"  Few  results  of  Old  Testament  research  are  as  surely  determined 
and  as  firmly  established  as  that  the  book  of  Joel  dates  from  the 
century  between  Ezra  and  Alexander  the  Great."  ^ 

The  exact  time  in  this  period  to  which  Joel  belongs  is, 
however,  somewhat  uncertain.  But  the  century  following 
the  constructive  work  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  appears  on  the 
whole  most  probable  in  view  of :  (a)  the  prominence  of 
the  Temple  in  the  civic  as  well  as  religious  life  of  the  com- 
munity (1:9;  2:1,  15;  3:1 7);  also  the  interest  in  main- 
taining its  services  [cf .  above  (d)] ;  (b)  emphasis  in  the  proph- 
ecv  on  the    daily  sacrifices ;    e.g,    meal-offering  (cf .   1:9; 

2  :14:  with  Neh.  10  :  33  ;  also  Dan.  8:11;  11 :  31 ;  12  :  11) ; 
(c)  the  exclusive  spirit  in  reference  to  foreigners  (3 :  176), 
and  condemnation  of  all  heathen  (3  :  2  ff.,  9  ff.) ;  and  (d)  the 
strong  apocalyptic  character   of   the   book   (e.g.  2 :  30  ff. ; 

3  :  11  ff.).   These  are  facts  all  of  which  answer  well  this  period. 

This  conception  of  the  nations  collectively  as  enemies  of  Judah 
[cf.  above  (c)],  it  is  claimed,  is  characteristic  of  the  later  prophetic 
writings,  e.g.  Ezek.  38  f . ;  Zech.  14.  The  earlier  prophets  mention 
definite  enemies  of  Judah  ;  e.g.  Assyria,  Isa.  17  :  12  f. ;  10  :  5  ff.,  etc. 

From  the  fact  that  no  feeling  of  hostility  is  manifested 
towards  Persia,  it  seems  reasonable  to  place  this  prophecy 
before  the  reign  of  the  cruel  Artaxerxes  Ochus  (358-337  B.C.), 
when  much  hostility  was  aroused  among  the  subject  nations 

1  Cf.  Driver,  Joel,  etc.,  225,  cf.  p.  14,  and  refs.  to  authorities  given 
there. 

2  Cf.  contra,  HDB,  ii.  675o  (Cameron),  etc. 

3  Cf.  CorniU,  Prophs.  Isr.  164. 


220      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

against  this  power.     A  probable  date  accordingly  for  Joel 
is  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

There  are  numerous  literary  parallels  between  Joel  and  other 
O.  Test,  writings  [e.g.  cf .  1 :  15  with  Ezek.  30  :  2  f . ;  Isa.  13  :  6 ; 
Zeph.  1  :  7,  etc. ;  cf .  2  :  16-2  with  Zeph.  1 :  14  f . ;  3  :  16  with  Am. 
1:2;  3:18  with  Am.  9 :  136 ;  2 :  32  with  Obad.  17  (where  it  is 
claimed  the  former  is  clearly  a  quotation) ;  and  many  other 
instances].  From  these  similar  passages  opposite  conclusions 
have  been  drawn  :  either  that  Joel  was  the  original  and  hence  is  an 
early  writing,  or  that  Joel  was  a  borrower  from  others  and  hence  the 
book  is  late.  While  it  is  difficult  to  form  a  decision  in  this  case,  it 
is  the  opinion  of  many  leading  scholars  at  present,  that  'Hhe  easy 
and  classical  style  of  Joel  is  best  understood  as  that  of  an  accom- 
pUshed  student  of  earlier  literature." 

The  unity  of  this  prophecy  has  been  questioned  at  different  times, 
but  this  view  has  not  met  with  wide  acceptance.  For  further 
details  cf .  outline  of  Biblical  material,  p.  268,  iii.  a.^ 

H.  Isaiah,  chaps.  24-27.  These  chapters  incorporated  in 
Isaiah,  which  have  been  termed  '^one  of  the  most  remarkable 
sections  of  prophecy  in  the  Old  Testament,"^  are  almost 
impossible  to  date  with  any  certainty,  owing  to  the  vagueness 
of  the  allusions.  On  one  point,  however,  there  is  practically 
common  agreement,  viz.  that  they  belong  to  an  author  other 
than  Isaiah  and  to  a  later  age.^ 

Some  of  the  more  important  grounds  for  this  conclusion 
are,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  historical  allusions  and  back- 
ground are  different  from  those  of  Isaiah's  day :  e.g.  (a) 
Isaiah  refers  definitely  to  different  nations,  such  as  Judah 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Joel, 
LOT,  307  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  237  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  133  f.,  199. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  183  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  325  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  207  fP. 
Moore,  LOT,  192  ff.  HDB,  ii.  672  ff.  (Cameron) ;  iv.  1126  (Davidson) ; 
extra  vol.  7086  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  2492  (W.  R.  Smith  and  Driver). 
Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Joel,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Bewer) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk. 
of  XII,  vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Camb.  B.  (Driver) ;  Cen.  B.  (Horton). 
Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  81  f.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  31,  409  ff.  H.  P. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  408  ff.,  500.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  116,  232  f.  Wade, 
O.  T.  Hist.  27  f.,  498  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  289  ff.  Kirkpatrick, 
Doct.  Prophs.  46  ff.  (and  espec.  57  ff.),  534.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs. 
103  ff.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  164  f.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  312  ff. 
Hunter,  After  Exile,  i.  238  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  114  ff.  San- 
ders, Hist.  Hebrs.  275  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  315  ff. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  493a  (G.  A.  Smith). 

3  "Anything  more  unlike  his  (  =  Isaiah's)  writing  could  not  be  imag- 
ined."    Moore,  LOT,  154. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     221 

(3  :  1  ff.),  Israel  (7  :  1  ff.),  Syria  (7  :  1  ff.),  Egypt  (31 :  1  ff.), 
Assyria  (10  :  5  ff.),  etc.,  while  in  chaps.  24-27  as  a  whole  the 
designations  are  general  (cf.  the  earth,  24 :  1  ff.,  19  f.)  and 
undefined  (cf .  some  unnamed  city  or  cities,  24  :  10  ;  25  :  2  f . ; 
26:5;  27:10). 

Cf.,  however,  the  reference  to  Moab  (25  :  10  f.),  but  according  to 
some  writers  this  nation  may  be  used  in  a  representative  sense  for 
the  enemies  of  Israel.  Cf.  also  ''Assyria,"  27 :  13,  which  may  be 
used  sj^mbolicall}^ ;  see  Zech.  10  :  10  f  .^ 

The  nations  meant  in  27  :  1  are  uncertain.  They  may  be  Assyria, 
Babylonia  and  Egypt ;  Babylonia,  Persia  and  Egypt ;  or  Egypt, 
Persia  and  Greece. 

(6)  In  Isaiah  the  scope  of  judgments  predicted  against 
nations  is  confined  to  the  earth  (cf.  in  reference  to  Judah, 
2  :  10  ff. ;  3  :  1  ff. ;  and  Assyria,  10  :  33  f . ;  14  :  24  f .) ;  but  in 
chaps.  24-27  those  described  are  apocalyptic  in  character, 
the  heavens  as  well  as  the  earth  being  involved  (24 :  1  ff., 
17  ft\,  21  ff.).  (c)  In  Isaiah's  undisputed  writings,  while 
Judah  is  to  be  punished,  the  punishment  is  to  take  place  in  its 
own  land,  from  which  a  purified  remnant  is  to  be  saved  there 
(e.g.  1  :  24  ff. ;  4:3;  10  :  20  f.),  but  in  Isa.  24-27  the  experi- 
ence of  the  Exile  is  presupposed ;  some  at  least  of  the  Jews 
being  still  scattered  abroad  (26  :  13 ;  27  :  12  f . ;  24  :  14-16?) ; 
cf .  also  n.  1  below. 

In  Isa.  11 :  11  f.  there  is  mention  of  restoration  from  Exile,  it  is 
true,  but  this  is  one  of  the  sections  which  may  be  a  later  addition 
to  the  prophecy.     Cf.  pp.  152  f.,  v.  /. 

Cf .  also  the  mention  of  elders  (24  :  23)  with  Joel  1 :  14 ;   2:16. 

Cf.  pp.  217  f. 

In  the  second  place,  the  ideas  and  conceptions  are  those  of 
a  later  time :  e.g.  (a)  the  apocalyptic  and  eschatological 
features  of  this  section  [cf.  above  under  (h)]  have  their 
closest  parallels   in  exilic  and  post-exilic  times  (cf.  Ezek. 

^  Note  the  difference  between  the  Assyria  of  Isaiah  and  that  of  this 
prophecy:  "the  deliverance  that  Isa.  declared  to  be  in  store  for  his 
country  was  the  preservation  of  its  capital  from  Assjnna's  attack  (10 :  24- 
27 ;  14 :  25) ;  the  deliverance  here  anticipated  is  the  restoration  of  dis- 
persed Jews  from  exile  in  a  land  called  by  that  name;  and  whilst  Isa. 
predicted  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  army  (10:  16  ff.,  33  f. ;  18:6; 
29 :  7  f.),  the  present  writer  speaks  of  the  downfall  of  an  oppressing  city." 
(Wade,  Isa.  156.) 


222      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

38  f . ;  Joel  3  :  9-21 ;  Zech.  12-14 ;  =  respectively  c.  586, 
400-360(  ?)  and  c.  300(  ?)  B.C. ;  (b)  the  inclusion  of  all  nations 
in  the  Messianic  blessing  (cf .  25 :  6-8)  indicates  a  time  not 
earlier  than  Isa.  40-55  (cf.  42:4,  6;  49:6  f.,  etc.);  and 
(c)  the  advanced  form  in  which  the  doctrine  of  immortality 
is  expressed  (25:8),  and  that  of  the  resurrection  (26:19), 
point  to  a  much  later  age  than  that  of  Isaiah. 

Note  in  connection  with  (b)  above,  that  the  same  outlook  is  also 
found  in  later  writings,  e.g.  Isa.  56-66  (cf .  56  :  6  f . ;  66  :  23) ; 
also  Zech.  14  :  16  ff.  ( =  post-exiHc). 

In  addition  to  (c)  above,  is  the  allusion  which  many  find  in 
24  :  21  f.  to  the  doctrine  of  tutelary  angels,  which  is  also  a  late  con- 
ception; cf.  especially  Dan.  10: 13,  20  f . ;    12: 1. 

Thirdly,  while  there  are  points  of  resemblance  in  style  to 
Isaiah's  writings,  this  section  as  a  whole  is  more  artificial ; 
such  features  as  repetition  of  ideas  (cf.  24 :  3  ff .) ;  of  words 
(24  :  16  ;  26  :  5,  etc.) ;  poetical  expression  (24  :  1,  8,  etc.)  etc., 
being  much  more  common  than  in  Isaiah's  prophecies.  This 
fact  also  favors  difference  of  authorship. 

The  resemblances  of  style  can  reasonably  be  explained  on  the 
theory  that  the  writer  of  Isa.  24-27  was  familiar  with  Isaiah's 
writings. 

^^Tien,  however,  an  attempt  is  made  to  determine  the 
exact  occasion  and  date  of  this  section,  as  already  intimated, 
a  problem  of  great  difficulty  and  much  uncertainty  is  pre- 
sented. Opinion  to  a  considerable  extent  is  divided  between 
two  views.  The  first  is  that  it  belongs  to  the  early  years  of 
the  Restoration,  especially  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  522-485  B.C.  The  different  conditions 
and  circumstances  of  the  prophecy,  it  is  held,  harmonize 
well  with  what  is  known  of  that  time. 

Some  of  the  parallel  conditions  claimed  are :  (a)  the  general 
expectation  of  an  overturning  of  the  existing  world-powers  at  that 
time  (with  24  :  1  ff.,  18  ff.,  cf.  Hag.  2  :  6  f.,  21  ff. ;  Zech.  1 :  11  ff. ; 
but  note  the  same  resemblances  in  the  later  writings  of  Joel,  e.g. 
3  :  16  and  Zech.  14  :  4  f.) ;  (b)  the  conception  of  a  world-judgment 
in  24  :  1  ff.,  17  ff.  finds  a  counterpart  in  Isa.  13  :  6  ff.,  c.  550  B.C. ; 
(c)  the  conditions  of  26 :  13-19  answer  to  those  of  the  Jews  during 
the  first  60  or  70  years  after  their  restoration ;  (d)  the  anticipation 
of  further  judgments  upon  Babylon,  cf .  Zech.  1:12;  2  :  6  ff .,  may  be 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     223 

referred  to  in  24  :  10 ;  25  :  2  ;  26  :  5,  etc.  (but  note  that  Babylon  may 
be  a  type  of  hostile  world-powers) ;  and  (e)  the  inference  from  Neh. 
1 :  3  of  some  calamity  suffered  by  the  Jews  possibly  at  that  time.^ 

The  other  view  is  that  it  had  its  origin  in  the  closing  years 
of  the  Persian  dominion.  The  marked  theological  concep- 
tions of  these  chapters,  referred  to  above,  which  are  evidently 
late,  answer  better,  it  is  claimed,  this  time  than  the  beginning 
of  that  period. 

It  is  an  attractive  theory  advocated  by  some  (especially 
by  Cheyne)  in  confirmation  of  this  later  date,  which  finds 
in  these  chapters  references  to  the  alleged  sufferings  of  the 
Jews  under  the  Persians,  and  anticipation  of  redress  in  the 
progress  of  Alexander  the  Great's  conquests.  In  view  of  all 
the  facts  but  little  more  than  the  statement  of  possibility 
seems  warranted.  Between  these  two  views,  however,  the 
second,  in  the  words  of  Skinner,  ' '  is  probably  the  one  w^hich 
best  harmonizes  the  varied  indications  of  the  prophecy."  ^ 
With  this  understanding  c.  340-332  B.C.  may  be  assigned  as 
a  tentative  date. 

Such  conceptions  as  those  of  the  resurrection  and  immortality 
[p.  222  (c)]  found  in  this  prophecy,  according  to  Cheyne  go  beyond 
those  of  the  Exile,  ''and  become  the  more  intelligible  the  later  we 
place  this  composition  in  the  Persian  period."  ^ 

For  a  sketch  of  the  closing  years  of  the  Persian  period,  and  espe- 
cially the  alleged  experiences  of  the  Jews  under  Artaxerxes  Ochus, 
358-337  B.C.,  cf.  pp.  273  f.  It  is  claimed  that  the  gloomy  tone  of 
chap.  24  refers  to  the  misfortunes  of  the  Jews  c.  350  B.C.,  and  the 
experiences  possibly  of  Jerusalem  and  other  cities,  as  Sidon,  in 
being  laid  waste  (24  :  10  ff. ;  cf.  27  :  10  f.).  The  notes  of  joy  over 
the  rise  of  Alexander  and  his  victories  are  found  in  27 : 7-11,  and 
espec.  in  the  lyrical  outbursts  (cf .  24  :  14  f . ;  25  :  1  ff.,  9  ff. ;  26  :  1- 
19  ;  27  :  2-5),  c.  332  b.c.  Cf.  also  a  supposed  reference  in  26  : 1-19 
to  the  capture  of  Tyre  by  Alexander  at  this  time.  Cf.  on  Alex- 
ander's conquests,  pp.  300  f.,  ii.  6. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  some  recent  scholars  following  Duhm  date 
this  section  of  prophecy  much  later,  i.e.  in  the  2nd  cen.  b.c.  (Mac- 
cabean  period),  e.g.  Gray,  Kennett,  Kent.'* 

1  Cf.  LOT,  221 ;  Kirkpatriek,  Doct.  Prophs.  490  f.  See  also  Skinner, 
Isa.  i.  204  f . 

2  Cf.  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  p.  204. 

3  Cf.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  152. 

^  Cf.  Gray,  Isa. ;   Kennett,  Compos.  Isa. ;   Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  in  loc. 


224      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

For  the  possibility  of  the  lyrical  passages  (25  : 1-5,  9-12 ;  26  :  1- 
19;  27:2-6,  cf.  also  the  obscure  section  27:7-11)  being  later 
additions,  perhaps  by  the  same  author  as  the  rest  of  the  section, 
cf.  p.  271,  iii.  a} 

3.   Poetical  Literature 

A.  The  Psalter.  The  question  of  the  credibility  of  the 
ascriptions  of  authorship  and  occasion  in  the  headings  of 
the  psalms,  and  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  problem 
of  determining  the  date  of  individual  psalms,  have  previously 
been  considered.  (Cf.  pp.  68  ff .)  It  remains  to  examine  the 
structure  of  the  Psalter,  and  to  ascertain  if  possible  the  times 
to  which  the  different  collections,  of  which  it  is  composed, 
are  to  be  assigned. 

The  Psalter  as  it  is  found  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  is  composed 
of  five  books,  viz.  psalms  1-41 ;  42-72 ;  73-89  ;  90-106  and 
107-150.  These  divisions  are  marked  in  the  Hebrew  text, 
not  only  by  headings  (cf.  R.  V.),  but  also  by  doxologies  at 
the  end  of  the  first  four  books  (cf .  41 :  13  ;  72  :  18  f . ;  89  :  52 ; 
106:48). 

Ps.  150,  which  is  doxological  in  character,  may  have  been  re- 
garded as  a  fitting  ending  not  only  to  the  fifth  book  but  also  for  the 
whole  Psalter. 

These  doxologies,  which  evidently  did  not  form  a  part  of  the 
psalms  to  which  they  are  appended  (cf .  however  on  Ps.  106 :  48, 
p.  233),  are  of  a  liturgical  order,  and  show  that  the  collections  were 
first  formed  for  use  in  public  worship.  (See  further,  pp.  228  f.) 
Note  also  the  fact  that  the  second  book  contains  a  special  subscrip- 
tion, cf .  72  :  20.     According  to  Briggs  :  ''Though  given  usually  only 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Isaiah, 
24-27,  LOT,  219  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  181  f .  McFadyen,  Introd.  122  ff. 
CorniU,  Introd.  278  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  180  ff.,  187.  Moore,  LOT,  153  f. 
HDB,  ii.  493a  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  cf.  iv.  1126  (Davidson) ;  extra  vol.  7086 
(Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  2201  f.  (Cheyne) ;  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Isa., 
espec.  Int.  Grit.  (Grav) ;  West.  C.  (Wade) ;  Expos.  B.,  voL  1  (G.  A. 
Smith);  Camb.  B.,  vol.  1  (Skinner);  Cen.  B.,  vol.  1  (Whitehouse). 
SBOT,  122  ff.,  203  &.  (Cheyne).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  77.  Cheyne, 
Introd.  Isa.  xxvii,  145  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  30  ff.  Kautzsch, 
LOT,  135  f.,  199.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  497  ff.  Kent,  Jew.  People, 
115  f.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  410  f.,  500.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  23,  469, 
487,  500.  Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times,  117  ff.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs. 
479  ff.,  488  ff.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  305  ff.,  308  ff.,  313  ff.  Cheyne, 
Jew.  Rehg.  Life,  229  ff.  CorniU,  Prophs.  Isr.  165  ff.  Bennett,  Post- 
Exil.  Prophs.  127  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  285  f.  Davidson,  Isa.  (TB), 
58  fif.,  193  ff. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     225 

at  the  close  of  the  books,  the  doxologies  were  really  used  at  the 
conclusion  of  every  Ps.  or  part  of  Ps.  sung  in  the  liturgy."  ^ 

It  may  be  added  that  this  five-fold  division  is  older  than  the 
LXX  translation,  as  these  doxologies  are  also  found  in  its  version 
of  the  Psalter. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  facts  usually  cited 
to  prove  that  the  several  collections  were  of  gradual  growth, 
—  the  work  of  different  compilers :  (a)  the  presence  of  the 
same  psalm  in  different  books  {e.g.  53  and  14 ;  70  and 
40  :  13-17  ;  108  and  57  :  7-11  +  60  :  5-12).  This  duplica- 
tion can  be  explained  most  naturally  on  the  supposition  that 
the  collections  belong  to  various  dates  and  compilers. 

Cf.  also  the  variant  titles  of  Pss.  14  and  53,  from  which  a  reason- 
able imphcation  is  that  the  collections,  in  which  they  are  found, 
are  not  the  work  of  the  same  compiler. 

(b)  The  closing  words  of  book  ii  (72  :  20),  ^^The  prayers  of 
David  the  son  of  Jesse  are  ended,"  indicate  that  all  the 
existing  psalms  attributed  to  David,  which  were  then  known, 
were  included  in  the  preceding  books.  It  seems  therefore  a 
logical  conclusion  that  the  collections  comprised  in  Pss.  1-72,^ 
must  have  been  independent  of  and  probably  earlier  than  the 
three  succeeding  books,  which  contain  eighteen  more  psalms 
attributed  to  him.^  (c)  The  fourth  and  fifth  books  (90-150) 
differ  in  a  marked  way  from  the  first  three  (3-89),  in  that  a 
majority  of  the  psalms  are  anonymous  ;  '^ musical  and  litur- 
gical directions  are  rare,  and  titles  of  the  obscure  character," 
found  in  the  first  three  books,  ''are  entirely  absent." 

For  example  the  musical  term  ''selah, "  which  is  found  seventeen 
times  in  book  i,  and  fifty  times  in  books  ii-iii  (=  Pss.  42-89), 
occurs  only  four  times  in  books  iv-v  (  =  Pss.  90-150)  and  in  those 
instances  in  two  psalms  which  are  ascribed  to  David,  viz.  140 
(cf.  vss.  3,  5,  8)  and  143  (cf.  vs.  6). 

(d)  The  use  of  the  divine  names  in  the  collections  also 
strongly  favors  the  same  conclusion.  Thus  the  name 
''Jehovah"    (cf.  Am.  R.  V. ;   in  other  E.  V.  =  Lord^)  pre- 

1  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  p.  Ixxxiii. 

2  At  least  the  Davidic  collections,  3-41  and  51-72. 

3  The  18  Pss.  =  86,  101,  103,  108-110,  122,  124,  131,  133,  138-145. 

*  Cf.,  however,  on  the  distinction  between  the  two  words  rendered 
"Lord"inE.  v.,  p.  13,  n.'. 


226      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

vails  in  Pss.  1-41 ;  84-89  and  90-150  ;  but  the  use  of  ^^God'* 
predominates  in  Pss.  42-72  and  73-83.  The  natural  infer- 
ence is  that  the  psalms  in  the  collections,  42-72  and  73-83, 
have  passed  through  the  hands  of  a  compiler  or  compilers, 
who  substituted  the  divine  name  God  ( =  Hebr.  ^'Elohim") 
for  '^Jehovah"  employed  by  the  original  authors.  The  con- 
clusion from  the  fact  that  the  Jehovistic  psalms  are  not  all 
in  one  collection,  nor  the  Elohistic  in  another,  is  that  this 
difference  of  preference  for  the  divine  names  did  not  belong 
to  the  final  compiler  of  the  Psalter,  but  already  existed  in 
the  various  groups  from  which  our  present  Psalter  was  con- 
structed. 

In  book  i  (1-41)  Jehovah  is  used  272  times  and  God  absolutely 
{i.e.  without  a  possessive  pronoun  as  ''my  God, "  etc.,  or  without  a 
qualifying  word,  as  ''God  of  my  righteousness,  "etc.)  only  15  times ; 
in  Pss.  84-89,  Jehovah  31  times  and  God,  7 ;  in  Pss.  90-150, 
Jehovah  339  times,  and  God  ( =  the  true  God)  only  in  Ps.  108 :  1, 
5,  7,  11  and  13  (=  from  Pss.  57  and  60),  and  in  144 : 9  ( =  a 
compilation).  In  Pss.  42-72,  God  is  used  164  times  and  Jehovah 
30 ;  in  73-83,  God  36  and  Jehovah  13  times. 

That  this  use  of  the  divine  name  God  (  =  Elohim)  was  due  to  the 
compiler's  substitution,  rather  than  to  the  preference  of  the  orig- 
inal composers  of  the  psalms,  is  demonstrated  :  (a)  by  a  comparison 
of  the  parallel  psalms  in  different  collections.  Thus  Ps.  14  ( = 
Jehovah)  //  Ps.  53  (  =  Elohim) ;  also  Ps.  40  :  13-17  (  =  Jehovah) 
//  Ps.  70  (=  Elohim,  though  Jehovah  is  found  twice,  vss.  1,  5) ; 
and  (5)  by  the  occurrence  of  the  expression  found  nowhere  else  in 
the  0.  Test,  but  in  these  Elohistic  collections,  "God,  my  (or  "thy") 
God, "  e.g.  43  :  4 ;  45  :  7,  which  seems  clearly  a  substitution  for  the 
original  wording,  "Jehovah  my  (or  "thy")  God,"  which  is  the 
customary  form  {e.g.  Pss.  7:1;  13  :  3,  etc.).  Note  also  the  title 
"God  of  hosts"  (80:7,  14)  instead  of  "Jehovah  of  hosts"  (cf. 
24:10). 

Some  authorities  in  support  of  the  position  that  the  collections 
were  not  of  the  same  age  or  by  the  same  compiler  claim  {e)  that  the 
various  parts  of  the  Psalter  differ  in  character.  Thus  in  book  i, 
the  psalms  are  personal,  i.e.  prayers  and  thanksgivings ;  in  ii-iii  na- 
tional in  standpoint ;  and  in  iv-v  liturgical  in  character.  This,  how- 
ever, is  a  general  distinction,  to  which  there  are  numerous  exceptions. 

As  regards  the  steps  in  the  formation  of  the  present  Psalter, 
the  following  order,  first  suggested  by  Ewald,^  has  generally 

1  Cf.  Ewald,  Psal.  i.  4  ff. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     227 

been  accepted  by  subsequent  scholars :  viz.  that  the  first 
collection  consisted  of  Pss.  3-41 ;  the  second  of  the  Elohistic 
groups,  42-72  and  73-83  (the  original  order  of  which  prob- 
ably was  51-72,  42-49  and  50  +  73-83),  to  which  84-89 
form  an  appendix.  The  third  main  division  comprised 
Pss.  90-150. 

Pss.  1-2  are  taken  in  this  volume  to  be  introductory  psalms  to 
the  whole  Psalter,  prefixed  by  the  final  compiler. 

Pss.  3-41  consist  almost  wholly  of  Davidic  psalms,  i.e.  psalms 
attributed  in  their  headings  to  David. 

Pss.  51-72  are  also  almost  entirely  Davidic.     Note  the  appro- 
priate  doxology   and   subscription    (72 :  20),   which   indicates    a 
collection  later  than  Pss.  3-41.     This  is  probably  the  earUest  group 
in  the  second  division. 
.  Pss.  42-49  consist  wholly  of  Korahite  psalms. 

Pss.  50,  73-83  are  Asaphic  psalms,  which,  it  is  supposed,  were 
originally  grouped  together,  instead  of  being  separated  as  now  by 
the  Davidic  section  Pss.  51-72.  [Cf.  possibly  the  next  step  =  an 
Elohistic  combination  and  redaction  of  Pss.  51-72 ;  42-49 ;  50  + 
73-83,  i.e.  ''by  an  editor  who  generally  substituted  Elohim  (God) 
for  Jehovah."] 

That  Pss.  84-89  form  an  appendix  to  the  second  collection  is 
seen  by  (a)  the  fact  that  this  group  contains  psalms  of  Korah  (84- 
85,  87-88?)  and  one  Davidic  (86),  which  would  naturally  have 
been  included  respectively  in  the  groups  42-49  and  51-72,  if  col- 
lected by  the  same  compilers  of  those  divisions ;  and  (6)  by  the 
preference  for  the  name  Jehovah  in  this  group  of  psalms ;  cf .  God 
(Elohim)  in  the  preceding  sections. 

That  Pss.  90-150  as  a  group  are  later  than  Pss.  42-83  is  shown 
from  the  follo\sdng  facts :  (a)  Ps.  108,  which  is  made  up  of  Pss. 
57 :  7-11  and  60 :  5-12  is  marked  by  the  use  of  the  divine  name 
God  C  Elohim  ")>  though  elsewhere  in  this  division  the  name 
Jehovah  is  generally  used.  The  clear  inference  is  that  this  psalm 
(108)  was  derived  from  a  collection,  which  was  characterized  by  the 
use  of  Elohim,  i.e.  from  the  collection  Pss.  42-83.  (6)  The  use  of 
the  name  Jehovah  in  this  division  shows  that  the  compiler  was 
(or  compilers  were)  not  the  same  as  that  (or  those)  of  Pss.  42-83 
(  =  Elohistic) ;  and  (c)  the  presence  of  a  number  of  psalms  in  this 
division  attributed  to  David  (cf.  the  list,  p.  225,  n.^),  points  to  a 
date  later  than  the  compilation  of  Pss.  42-72 ;  cf .  the  statement 
Ps.  72 :  20. 

That  books  iv-v  ( =  Pss.  90-150)  should  be  considered  as  one 
collection  and  not  two  seems  evident  from :  (a)  the  similarity  in 
character  of  the  two  parts ;   (6)  the  same  preference  for  the  divine 


228     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

name  Jehovah ;  and  (c)  whatever  may  be  the  true  explanation  of 
the  doxology  at  the  close  of  Ps.  106  [cf.  p.  233  (a)-(c)]  it  forms  an 
arbitrary  division,  as  Ps.  107  is  the  natural  sequel  of  Ps.  106,  and 
hence  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  other  doxologies,  which  clearly  mark 
the  conclusion  of  separate  collections. 

It  is  to  be  noticed,  however,  that  Pss.  90-150  seem  also  to  include 
minor  collections,  e.g.  Pss.  93  +  95-100  =  a  group  characterized 
by  similarity  of  subject-matter  and  expressions;  so  also  111-118, 
''the  Hallel"  psalms  (according  to  Briggs  =  originally  four  groups, 
viz.  104-107,  111-117,  135-136,  146-150) ;  ^  Pss.  120-134,  the 
"Songs  of  Degrees"  or  ''Ascents,"  and  perhaps  others. 

According  to  the  above  rearrangement  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  original  division  of  the  Psalter  was  a  three-fold  one,  viz. 
Pss.  (1-2),  3-41 ;  42-89  and  90-150.  The  present  five-fold 
division,  therefore,  is  a  somewhat  artificial  one,  and  is  gener- 
ally supposed  to  have  been  made  to  accord  with  the  number 
of  books  of  the  Pentateuch. 

This  five-fold  division  was  made  by  separating  the  second  main 
group  at  the  end  of  Ps.  72,  the  subscription  of  which  forms  a 
natural  division;  and  by  dividing  the  third  main  section  at  the 
end  of  Ps.  106. 

In  reference  to  the  date  of  these  different  collections,  the 
consensus  of  opinion  among  Old  Testament  scholars  to-day 
is  that  none  is  earlier  than  the  period  of  the  Restoration, 
i.e.  the  Persian  period. 

The  attention  of  the  reader  is  called  especially  to  the  fact,  that  in 
this  connection  it  is  the  date  of  the  collections,  not  so  much  that  of 
the  individual  psalms  composing  them,  which  is  being  considered. 
The  age  of  a  collection  must  of  course  be  later  than  that  of  the 
psalms  which  compose  it  (except  in  the  case  of  later  insertions), 
and  the  possibility  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  it  may 
contain  some,  or  even  a  considerable  number,  of  an  earlier  time. 

Two  facts  at  least  are  urged  in  support  of  this  view  of  the 
period  to  which  the  compilation  of  the  different  collections 
is  to  be  assigned.  The  first  is  that  the  different  groups 
seem  clearly  designed  for  the  Temple  service,  which  strongly 
favors  this  date,  as  there  is  no  certain  reference  to  Temple 
musicians  as  a  class  till  after  the  Return,  when  the  sanctuary 
and  its  services  [especially  from  the  time  of  the  reforms  of 

1  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxviii  f . 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF  PERSIAN   PERIOD     229 

Ezra  and  Nehemiah    (458-432  b.c.)],  became   matters  of 
supreme  interest  in  the  Jewish  community.^ 

The  above  opinion,  that  the  collections  were  designed  for  the 
Temple  service,  has  recently  been  questioned  by  a  number  of 
scholars,  who  hold  that  many  of  the  psalms  were  not  intended  for 
this  purpose  and  were  not  used  as  such.  Hence  Cheyne  prefers 
to  term  the  Psalter  ''the  prayer-book  and  hymn-book  of  the  (post- 
exilic)  Jewish  community."  ^ 

The  first  definite  reference  to  the  singers  as  a  class  is  in  the  list 
of  returned  Exiles  in  Ezra  2  (cf.  vs.  41).  Such  pre-exiUc  allusions 
as  Am.  5 :  23,  it  is  beheved,  refer  ''to  the  worshippers  at  large."  ^ 

That  the  design  of  the  various  sections  of  the  Psalter  was 
for  Temple  usage  is  seen  by :  (a)  the  musical  headings 
and  directions  (especially  in  the  divisions  included  in  books 
i-iii),  which  have  their  closest  parallel  alone  in  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  Le\^tical  psalmody  of  the  Temple  in  the  late 
books  of  Chronicles  ;  (h)  the  liturgical  character  of  the  psalms, 
which  appears  most  clearly  in  the  later  collections ;  and  (c) 
the  prominence  given  to  the  Temple,  Zion,  the  holy  city,  in 
many  of  the  psalms  also  favors  the  same  conclusion.'^ 

As  illustrating  (a)  above,  cf.  such  headings  as  (a)  "For  the  chief 
musician,"  55  times,  mostly  in  books  i-iii  (cf.  Pss.  4-5,  etc.).  The 
root  meaning  of  which  =  "to  oversee"  is  found  in  verbal  form 
only  in  Chronicles-Ezra;  e.g.  "to  lead"  (i.e.  the  music),  1  Chr. 
15  :  21 ;  and  in  the  sense  of  superintending  (1  Chr.  23  :  4 ;  2  Chr.  2  : 
2,  18,  etc. ;  Ezra  3  :  8  f.) ;  (/?)  "Selah,"  a  doubtful  term,  but  prob- 
ably relating  to  musical  setting  (e.g.  Pss.  3  :  2,  4,  8 ;  4  :  2,  4,  etc.) ; 
(y)  the  terms  "Alamoth"  and  "Sheminith,"  etc.  (Pss.  46;  6;  12; 
cf.  1  Chr.  15 :  19-21) ;  (8)  also  the  title,  "A  Psalm,  a  Song  for  the 
Sabbath  day"  (Ps.  92) ;  cf.  the  LXX,  in  which  Ps.  24  is  assigned 
to  the  first  day  of  the  week ;  Ps.  48  to  the  second ;  Ps.  94  to  the 
fourth ;  and  Ps.  93  to  the  sixth.  It  is  known  that  in  the  second 
Temple  each  day  of  the  week  had  its  special  psalm,  which  was  sung 
at  the  offering  of  the  morning  service  (cf.  Ecclus.  50:14  &.). 
And  (e)  the  doxologies  of  the  different  collections  (cf .  above,  pp.  224 
f.)  have  the  same  bearing. 

As  an  illustration  of  (6)  above,  i.e.  the  liturgical  character  of 

1  Cf.  the  fact  of  no  indication  in  pre-exilic  literature  of  the  influence 
of  the  Psalter.     Cornill,  Introd.  398. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3923  f.  (Cheyne).     CorniU,  Introd.  410  f. 

3  For  a  different  view,  cf.  Robertson,  Poet,  and  Relig.,  etc.,  98  ff.,  108  ff. 

4  Cf.  such  psalms  as  15 ;   24 ;  42  f. ;  63 ;  65 ;  84 ;  87,  etc. 


230      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

certain  groups  in  the  Psalter,  cf.  the  Hallelujah  psalms  (111-118), 
which  were  connected  with  the  trumpet  blowing  of  the  priests 
(1  Chr.  16  :  4  ff. ;   25  :  3  ;  2  Chr.  5  :  12  f.,  etc.). 

The  second  fact  in  support  of  the  late  date  of  the  collections 
is  this,  that  even  in  the  generally  admitted  oldest  portion  of 
the  Psalter,  Pss.  3-41,  the  experiences  of  the  Exile  seem 
reflected  to  a  considerable  extent  in  a  number  of  the  psalms. 

''Only  in  this  way  can  we  understand  the  conflict  and  triumph 
of  spiritual  faith,  habitually  represented  as  the  faith  of  a  poor  and 
struggling  band,  living  in  the  midst  of  oppressors,  and  with  no 
strength  or  help  but  the  consciousness  of  loyalty  to  Jehovah,  which 
is  the  fundamental  note  of  the  whole  book."  Cf.  the  influence  of 
Lam.  and  Isa.  40  If.  in  Pss.  22  and  25,  etc.^ 

As  to  the  exact  dates  within  the  post-exilic  periods  to 
which  the  various  divisions  composing  the  Psalter  are  to  be 
assigned,  there  is  found  a  considerable  variation  of  opinion 
among  scholars  at  present.  The  following  may  be  taken  as 
tentative  positions  on  this  point,  which  is  involved  in  a  good 
deal  of  uncertainty,  and  which  accordingly  leaves  room  for 
different  conclusions. 

1.  The  first  collection,  Pss.  (1-2?),  3-41,  may  be  dated 
approximately  from  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (458- 
432  B.C.),  when  the  Temple  services  were  reorganized,  as  is 
evidenced  by  the  advanced  stage  of  development  in  Temple 
psalmody  implied  therein.  Some,  however,  place  it  earlier 
in  the  Persian  period ;  others  later. 

Among  those  holding  this  view  of  the  age  of  the  collection,  Pss. 
3-41,  may  be  mentioned,  W.  R.  Smith,  Kautzsch,  Bennett,  Gordon, 
etc. 

Among  those  holding  an  earlier  date  for  this  collection,  the  fol- 
lowing divergent  views  may  be  mentioned :  (a)  the  time  of 
Solomon,  c.  980  ff .  B.C.  =  Delitzsch,  Perowne ;  (6)  from  the  middle 
of  the  10th  to  the  8th  (or  7th)  cens.  B.C.  =  Ewald ;  (c)  the  ''period 
shortly  after  the  Exile  as  the  earliest  possible  and  the  most  probable 
date"  =  Davison.  Cf.  "probably  not  completed  in  its  present 
form  till  after  the  Exile  "  =  Kirkpatrick;  also  Driver  for  books 
i-ii. 

Among  those  who  consider  that  this  collection  belongs  to  a  later 
time,  cf.  the  view  of  Briggs,  that  all  the  Davidic  psalms  =  late 
Persian  period ;    also  the  view  of  Cheyne  that  books  i-iii  belong 

»  Cf .  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  \  220. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     231 

probably  to  the  Persian  period  or  early  Greek.  Book  i,  not  earlier 
than  400  b.c.  (Cornill).  Book  i  =  soon  after  Nehemiah  and  the 
priestly  reforms  associated  with  Ezra  (Kent).^ 

2.  The  Elohistic  collections,  i.e.  Pss.  51-72  (Davidic),  and 
the  two-fold  Levitical  groups,  Pss.  42-49 ;  50  +  73-83,  may 
be  assigned  to  the  last  part  of  the  Persian  period,  c.  430-330 
B.C.  The  external  grounds  upon  which  this  conclusion  is 
based  are :  (a)  that  these  collections  are  later  than  that 
of  Pss.  3-41 ;  2  and  (6)  that  the  Levitical  sections  were 
probably  compiled  before  the  time  of  the  Chronicler,  c.  300- 
250  B.C.  (who  describes  the  past  in  terms  of  the  institutions 
of  his  own  day).  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  mentions 
three  Temple  choirs,  viz.  Asaph,  Heman,  and  Ethan  or 
Jeduthun  (cf.  1  Chr.  6  :  31  ff . ;  16  :  41  f. ;  2  Chr.  25  :  1,  etc.), 
w^hereas  in  these  psalm-collections  only  two  are  mentioned, 
viz.  Korah  and  Asaph. 

''Jeduthun"  as  found  in  Chr.  (cf.  1  C.  25  :  1  ff. ;  2  C.  5  :  12,  etc.) 
'4s  generally  allowed"  to  be  another  name  of  Ethan.  See  also 
the  name  in  titles  of  Pss.  39 ;  62  :  77.3 

The  first  undoubted  appearance  of  the  three  guilds  of  singers  is 
found  in  Neh.  12 :  24,  but  this  refers  to  the  time  of  Darius  Codo- 
mannus,  336-331  b.c.  Cf.  also  Neh.  11 :  17,  which  is  probably 
older  than  the  section  12 :  22-26,  but  it  is  edited  by  Ch,  See 
p.  261,  ii.  d. 

It  seems  in  the  early  part  of  the  Persian  period  and  apparently 
as  late  as  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  that  only  one  Temple  choir  was  in 
existence  (cf.  Ezra  2:41;  10 :  23  f . ;  Neh.  7:1,  44,  73,  etc.), 
which  confirms  the  view  that  the  two  guilds  of  singers,  Asaph  and 
Korah,  presupposed  in  the  Levitical  groups  of  the  Psalter,  were 
subsequent  to  Nehemiah. 

The  absence  of  any  recognition  of  sinfulness  in  the  community 
in  the  Asaphic  and  Korahite  groups  {e.g.  42;  44;  73,  etc.),  it  is 
claimed,  harmonizes  with,  this  age,  viz.  after  the  adoption  of  the 
Priestly  Code,  445  (444)  b.c.'» 

Note  the  view  of  Briggs,  who  dates  the  Levitical  groups  in  the 
early  Greek  period,  i.e.  after  332  b.c.^ 

1  Cf.  CorniU,  Introd.  404.     Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  45. 

2  That  the  collection,  Pss.  3-41,  must  have  been  in  existence  for  a 
long  time,  having  "a  fixed  Uturgical  position,"  seems  evident  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  not  touched  by  the  Elohistic  revision,  which  is  seen  in 
such  a  marked  manner  in  the  second  collection  [cf.  pp.  225  f.  (d)]. 

3  Cf.  further,  LOT,  370,  n.  *. 

*  Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  0.  T.  Jew.  Church  \  206  f . 

'  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixv  fif.     Cf.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  46. 


232      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

3.  Pss.  84-89,  the  Jehovistic  supplement  to  the  Elohistic 
collections,  being  of  necessity  later  than  these,  may  be 
brought  down  almost  to  the  time  of  the  Chronicler,  c.  300- 
250  B.C.,  as  the  three-fold  division  of  the  Temple  choir  [cf. 
above  2  (b)]  is  presupposed  in  this  group.  Cf.  the  headings 
of  Pss.  88  and  89,  in  which  the  names  Heman  and  Ethan 
(the  former  being  combined  with  Korah)  are  found.  This 
division  may,  according  to  Bennett,  mark  ^Hhe  transi- 
tion from  Korah  to  Heman  and  Ethan"  of  the  age  of  the 
Chronicler.^ 

In  the  time  of  the  Chronicler  the  '^Korahites"  denoted  a  com- 
pany of  porters  and  doorkeepers  of  the  Temple,  not  singers  (cf. 
1  Chr.  9:19;  26:1,  19).2 

Among  those  holding  this  date  for  the  compilation  of  Pss.  84-89 
may  be  mentioned  W.  R.  Smith,  Bennett,  Kautzsch,  Driver  and 
Briggs. 

4.  The  remaining  collection  of  the  Psalter,  Pss.  90-150,  in 
view  of  the  above  conclusions,  is  thus  brought  down  into  the 
Greek  period  (332-165  b.c),  as  the  earliest  possible  date, 
^.e.  c.  250  B.C.  In  confirmation  of  this  view  of  the  late 
compilation  of  this  group  of  psalms  is  the  absence  from  them 
of  the  musical  titles,  which  are  found  so  frequently  in  the 
earher  divisions,  and  which  were  evidently  familiar  to  a 
writer  as  late  as  the  Chronicler.  The  inference  to  be  drawn 
from  this  fact  is  that  this  collection  dates  from  an  age  so 
much  later  than  the  Chronicler,  that  these  terms  were  no 
longer  used  or  understood,  just  as  they  were  unintelligible 
to  the  Septuagint  translators. 

As  also  favoring  the  Greek  age  for  this  collection  it  is  held  that 
the  condition  of  well-being  and  happiness,  reflected  in  many  of  the 
psalms  of  this  collection,  corresponds  with  the  experience  of  the 
Jews  under  the  Ptolemies  in  the  third  century  B.C.  (e.g.  Pss.  91  f. ; 
106:46,  etc.). 

A  further  argument  for  a  late  date  of  this  collection  is  the 
strong  Aramaic  influence  in  some  of  the  psalms ;  e.g.  Ps.  139. 

It  is,  moreover,  quite  possible  that  this  division  should  be 
brought  down  even  later,  if,  as  many  scholars  beUeve,  it 

1  Bennett,  Introd.  140. 

2  Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  204.  HDB,  iii.  126;  and  iv. 
37a  (Selbie).     Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  35. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     233 

contains  as  well  a  number  of  psalms  belonging  to  the 
Maccabean  age,  165  ff.  B.C.,  e.g.  Pss.  118,  149  (cf.  vss.  6  ff.), 
etc.  If  this  view  is  correct,  this  collection,  Pss.  90-150 
(together  with  the  combination  and  completion  of  the  other 
different  portions  of  the  Psalter),  will  belong  of  necessity  to 
the  Maccabean  period  —  according  to  some  in  the  early 
part  of  it ;  according  to  others  at  its  close,  c.  140  b.c.^  ^ 

Among  those  holding  the  early  Maccabean  date  for  this  collec- 
tion, cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  Bennett,  Kyle.  Note  also  Davison,  who 
considers  that  the  Psalter  was  completed  c.  180  b.c. 

Among  those  holding  the  later  part  of  the  Maccabean  period  as 
the  age  of  this  collection,  etc.,  cf.  Kautzsch,  Cheyne,  H.  P.  Smith. 
Note  also  Briggs  =  c.  the  middle  of  the  2nd  cen.  b.c.  Gray 
=  c.  100  B.C.  (Introd.  129). 

The  reader  is  again  reminded,  that  assigning  this  late  date  to  this 
collection  does  not  of  necessity  mean  that  all  the  psalms  contained 
in  it  had  their  origin  in  that  period.  Thus  W.  R.  Smith  places  the 
group  termed  the  ''Psalms  of  Degrees"  or  ''Ascents"  (120-134)  in 
post-exilic  times  but  earlier  than  the  Elohistic  collections. 

It  is  held  by  some  scholars  that  the  collection,  Pss.  90-150,  must 
be  earlier  than  the  Chronicler,  as  in  1  Chr.  16  is  found  a  psalm, 
composed  of  several  from  the  Psalter,  of  which  vs.  36  =  the 
doxology  in  Ps.  106  (cf.  vs.  48),  from  which  the  conclusion  has 
been  drawn  that  the  Chronicler  must  have  quoted  from  the  Psalter, 
as  it  at  present  exists,  in  its  five-fold  division.  This  inference, 
however,  is  not  accepted  by  many  scholars ;  by  some  on  the  ground  : 
(a)  that  vs.  48  in  Ps.  106  forms  really  a  part  of  the  psalm  rather 
than  a  doxology  to  the  whole  group,  Pss.  90-106  (cf .  W.  R.  Smith) ; 
by  others  who  claim,  (5)  that  the  doxology  was  composed  by  the 
Chronicler  and  borrowed  by  the  editor  of  the  Psalter  (cf .  Ryle) ; 
while  others  hold  (c)  that  1  Chr.  16  :  8-36  is  a  late  addition  to  Chr., 
cf.  Reuss,  Baethgen,  Duhm,  etc.). 

Another  objection,  which  is  brought  against  assigning  so  late  a 
date  for  the  final  compilation  of  the  third  division  of  the  Psalms 
and  the  Psalter  as  a  whole,  is  that  in  the  LXX  the  Psalter  is  found 
substantially  as  in  the  Hebrew,  and  it  is  claimed  that  this  transla- 

1  The  reasons  suggested  above,  and  in  connection  with  the  preceding 
sections,  for  determining  the  dates  are  substantially  those  given  by  W.  R. 
Smith.     Cf.  0.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  201  fp. ;   EBi,  iii.  3926  ff. 

2  Note  Kent's  conclusion  that  the  Hallel  Pss.  (104-118,  and  136- 
150)  =  latter  part  of  the  Greek  and  the  1st  part  of  the  Maccabean  periods. 
The  psalms  of  Degrees  or  Ascents  (120-134)  =  latter  part  of  Greek 
period.  The  concluding  work  on  the  Psal.  =  probably  in  the  peaceful 
and  prosperous  reign  of  Simon,  143-135  b.c.     Cf.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  47. 


234     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

tion  was  made  before  the  Maccabean  age.  In  reply  to  this  argu- 
ment it  may  be  stated  that  the  history  of  the  LXX  is  involved  in 
much  obscurity,  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  third 
division  of  the  Canon,  which  contains  the  Psalter,  was  translated 
(hence  indicating  its  completion  in  the  Hebrew)  so  early.  The 
earliest  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the  three-fold  division  of  the 
O.  Test,  in  Greek  is  found  c.  130  b.c,  in  the  prologue  to  Ecclesias- 
ticus  added  by  the  grandson  of  the  author.  It  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  third  division  contained  the  Psalter  practically 
as  it  is  to-day,  —  hence  its  completion  in  Hebrew  before  130  b.c, 
but  not  necessarily  before  the  Maccabean  age. 

A  comparison  of  the  Psalter  with  the  so-called  Psalms  of  Solomon, 
which  belong  to  63-48  (or  45)  b.c,  is  viewed  in  different  ways  by 
scholars,  as  related  to  the  date  of  the  former.  According  to  some 
it  shows  that  the  Psalter  belongs  to  a  much  earUer  time.  In  the 
words  of  Kirkpatrick,  'Hhe  contrast  is  immense.  They  {i.e. 
Psalms  of  Solomon)  are  separated  from  the  Psalter  by  an  impassa- 
ble gulf"  ;  cf.  Davison ;  Budde,  etc.  Others  form  a  different  con- 
clusion, e.g.  Wellhausen,  who  asserts  that  these  psalms  ^^do  not 
differ  from  the  canonical  ones  in  any  essential  characteristic,"  and 
hence  that  this  group  shows  the  possibiHty  of  late  composition  in 
the  Psalter.^ 

Scholars  who  consider  that  the  Psalter  was  practically  closed 
before  the  Maccabean  age,  but  who  admit  the  possibiHty  of  Mac- 
cabean psalms,  hold  that  they  must  be  limited  in  number,  being 
inserted  in  collections  already  compiled.  Pss.  74,  79,  44  and  83 
are  those  which  are  more  commonly  considered  Maccabean. ^  ^  ^ 

1  Cf.  Kirkpatrick,  Psal.  iii.  pp.  xlviii  f.  HDB,  iv.  1486  f.  (Davison) ; 
13a  (Budde).  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  114.  Wellhausen,  Psal.  163.  See 
also  Cheyne,  Aids,  etc.,  135  f. 

2  Cf.  Kirkpatrick,  Psal.  iii.  pp.  xlv  ff.,  lix.  Davison,  Psal.  27  f. ;  HDB, 
iv.  1526  f.  (Davison).  Cf.  also  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  2,  437  ff. 
Cornill,  Introd.  407  ff.     Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  106,  n.  1.    See  p.  318,  iii.  3. 

3  For  Briggs'  view  of  the  groupings  and  dates  of  the  different  collec- 
tions of  the  Psalter,  cf .  his  Psal.  i.  Ixi  ff. 

^  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  the  Psalter, 
LOT,  359  ff.,  371  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  134  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  141  ff., 
198  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  238  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  392  ff.,  401  ff.  Gray, 
Introd.  128  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  216  ff.  HDB,  iii.  612  f.  (Woods) ;  iv. 
13a  (Budde) ;  36  f.  (Selbie) ;  145  ff.  (Davison) ;  extra  vol.  7236 
(Kautzsch).  EBi,  iii.  3921  ff.  (W.  R.  Smith  and  Cheyne) ;  Introds.  in 
Comms.  on  Psalms,  espee.  Int.  Crit.,  2  vols.  (Briggs) ;  Camb.  B.,  3  vols. 
(Kirkpatrick) ;  Cen.  B.,  vol.  1  (Davison),  vol.  2  (Davies) ;  SBOT,  162  ff. 
(Wellhausen).  Also  in  Ewald,  Psal.,  2  vols.;  DeKtzsch,  Psal.  3  vols. 
Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  61,  100  ff.  Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.  Cheyne, 
Aids,  etc.,  129  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  321  ff.,  334  ff.  W.  R.  Smith, 
O.  T.  Jew.  Church 2,  188  ff.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  45  ff.  Gordon,  Poets, 
etc.,  espec.  chap.  6,  pp.  97  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  137  ff.  H.  P.  Smith, 
O.  T.  Hist.  471  ff.,  501.     Kent,  Jew.  People,  117  ff.     Wade,  O.  T.  Hist. 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     235 

B.  Job}  The  book  of  Job,  which  deals  with  the  problem 
of  the  suffering  of  the  righteous,  or  the  doctrine  of  retribu- 
tion, gives  evidence  of  an  age  of  advanced  reflection. 
Though  the  scene  of  the  plot  of  the  poem  is  laid  in  Patri- 
archal times  (cf.  chaps.  If.;  42  :  7  ff.),  the  opinion  of  scholars 
is  practically  unanimous  in  regarding  it  as  a  literary  product 
of  a  much  later  period. 

Of  the  arguments  commonly  used  in  support  of  this 
conclusion  the  following  are  some  of  the  most  important. 
First,  the  book  imphes  an  advanced  state  of  society ;  also 
a  wider  range  of  observation  than  would  have  been  possible 
on  the  part  of  a  nomad  in  the  Patriarchal  period. 

Cf.  the  illustrations  from  history  (chap.  12 :  13  ff.) ;  references 
to  different  classes  of  society  (chaps.  24 ;  30 :  1-8) ;  indications 
of  the  settled  life  of  Palestine,  as  seen  in  the  mention  of  the  place 
of  judgment  {e.g.  the  gate,  29  :  7 ;  31 :  21 ;  cf .  Amos  5  :  10),  and 
evidences  of  an  established  system  of  judicial  procedure  {e.g. 
31 :  11,  28,  35  f. ;  cf.  also  Job's  appeal  to  God,  13  :  18  ff.). 

Secondly,  the  condition  of  disorder  and  distress,  reflected 
in  different  parts  of  the  book,  indicates  a  wider  experience 
and  observation  than  those  based  upon  personal  suffering 
merely. 

Cf .  3  :  18  ff. ;  7:1;  9  :  24 ;  12  :  6,  17  ;  24  :  12.  Such  a  descrip- 
tion as  12  :  17  ff.  most  naturally  points  to  a  time  at  least  as  late  as 
the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  conquests  (cf.  Isa.  10 :  7,  13  f .,  etc.), 
if  not  later,  which  produced  such  marked  poHtical  changes  in  the 
kingdoms  of  Western  Asia. 

Thirdly,  the  problem  of  the  book  presupposes  an  age  of 
much  reflection.  It  was  not  a  subject  to  appear  in  such  a 
developed  form  at  an  early  period.  It  indicates  a  time  of 
questioning,  when  the  accepted  views  and  inferences  in 
reference  to  the  problems  of  well-being  and  suffering  were 
faihng  to  satisfy  the  thoughtful.     The  inference  also  seems 

16 ff.,  cf.  495  f.  Robertson,  Poet,  and  Relig.,  etc.,  espec.  chaps,  iii  ff.  San- 
day,  Inspir.,  193  ff.,  250  ff.,  270  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  xvi,  124. 
G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  86  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  286,  298. 
McFadyen,  Psal.  16  ff.  Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  320  ff.,  364  ff.,  cf.  226  ff., 
283  ff.,  317  ff.  „  ^ 

1  The  books  of  Job,  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes  form  the  so-called 
Hokhma  or  Wisdom  literature  of  the  O.  Test.  For  the  scope  and  char- 
acteristics of  this  literature,  cf.  LOT,  392  ff.,  409,  465.  HDB,  iv.  924  ff. 
(Siegfried).     EBi,  iv.  5322  ff.  (Toy),  etc. 


236      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

clear  that  thinking  men  must  have  reflected  long  on  these 
themes,  before  they  could  be  so  elaborately  treated  as  they 
are  in  this  book.  The  first  indication  of  this  questioning 
spirit  is  found  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah,  626  ff.  B.C.  {e.g, 
Jer.  12  : 1 ;  cf.  Habak.  1 :  13  f.,  etc.). 

According  to  Davison,  this  is  perhaps  the  only  argument  ^' which 
is  really  conclusive."  .  .  .  "The  problems  of  human  life  are  doubt- 
less old,  but  they  could  not  be  raised  in  the  manner  displayed  in 
Job,  without  a  previous  religious  history,  and  one  of  considerable 
duration,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  the  three  friends  had  come  to  be 
the  current  and  orthodox  explanation  of  the  facts  of  life.  The 
history  of  the  Old  Testament  shows  that  only  at  a  comparatively 
late  period  were  these  maxims  questioned;  and  when  we  find 
them  not  only  questioned  but  discussed  in  the  thorough  manner 
of  the  book  of  Job,  we  may  be  sure  that  it  was  not  composed  till  at 
least  the  closing  period  of  the  monarchy."  ^ 

Cf.  also  the  question  of  children  suffering  for  parental  sins  in 
Jer.  31 :  29  ;  Ezek.  chap.  18.     Note  also  Job  21 :  19. 

Among  other  reasons  cited  to  show  that  the  book  of  Job  is  later 
than  the  Patriarchal  age  may  be  mentioned:  (a)  alleged  refer- 
ences to  the  observances  of  Israelitish  law  in  the  book  (cf .  22  :  6  and 
24 :  9  with  Ex.  22  :  26  f . ;  Deut.  24 :  17  f. ;  22 :  27  and  24 :  2  with 
Deut.  23  :  21-23 ;  19  :  14,  etc. ;  cf.  Hos.  5 :  10),  etc. ;  (b)  the  mention 
of  Ophir  in  22 :  24  and  28 :  16  points  to  a  date  at  least  as  late  as 
Solomon  (cf.  1  Ki.  9  :  28 ;  10  :  11) ;  (c)  the  literary  form  and  char- 
acter of  the  poem  also  imply  a  late  time.  The  knowledge  indicated, 
the  illustrations,  references,  the  orderly  and  progressive  develop- 
ment of  thought  in  the  poem,  ''appear  to  imply  an  advanced  and 
not  a  primitive  period  of  literature  and  life";  (d)  the  developed 
form  of  morality  (cf.  especially  chap.  31)  and  the  conception  of 
God  set  forth  in  the  book  harmonize  with  a  late  rather  than  with 
an  early  period ;  and  (e)  allusion  to  the  worship  of  the  sun  and 
moon  (Job  31 :  26-28),  =  a  cultus  not  introduced  into  Israel  till 
the  8th  and  7th  centuries  B.C.  (cf .  2  Ki.  21 :  3,  5 ;  16  :  10 ;  17  :  16, 
etc.),  etc. 

As  to  the  exact  time  to  which  the  book  belongs  there  is 
considerable  uncertainty.  Between  two  periods,  however, 
the  opinion  of  scholars  is  to  a  large  extent  divided,  viz.  the 
Exile  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  post-exilic  date  on  the  other.^ 

1  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  6706. 

2  Cf.  for  pre-exilic  date  (=  age  of  Hezekiah),  Genung,  Epic  of  Inner 
Life,  102  ff.,  110  fe.  Note  also  the  date,  the  later  years  of  the  Kingdom, 
or  the  Exile  (Gibson,  Job,  xxiii). 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     237 

In  favor  of  its  exilic  origin  are  the  following  considerations  : 
(a)  the  facts  already  cited,  in  favor  of  a  date  later  than 
the  Patriarchal  times,  harmonize  well  with  the  Exile. 
(6)  The  Exile  furnished  a  fitting  occasion  (at  least  a  more 
probable  one  than  any  other  up  to  that  time)  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  a  great  moral  problem  such  as  is  presented  in  this 
book ;  —  the  experience  of  Job  standing  not  simply  for  that 
of  an  individual,  but  typifjdng  that  of  righteous  Israel,  which 
suffered  in  Exile,  (c)  Further,  the  parallels  of  language  and 
thought  between  Job  and  Isaiah  40  if.,  it  is  claimed,  strongly 
favor  the  inference  that  both  writers  at  least  ^4ived  sur- 
rounded by  the  same  atmosphere  of  thought. '^  ^ 

Some  of  these  parallels  of  language  between  Isaiah  40  ff .  and  Job 
are  Job  9  :  8  //  Isa.  44  :  24,  cf.  45  :  12 ;  Job  26  :  12  f .  //  Isa.  51:9; 
Job  13  :  28  //  Isa.  50 ;  9,  etc.  Some  of  the  analogies  of  thought  are 
Job's  sufferings,  though  innocent;  the  harsh  judgment  of  his 
friends ;  the  ill-treatment  he  received,  etc.  (cf.  1:8;  16 :  10 ; 
19 :  4  ff. ;  30  :  9  f .  with  Isa.  53  :  11 ;  52  :  14  ff. ;  50 :  6) ;  also  his 
restoration  (Job  42  :  10  ff .,  cf .  with  Isa.  52  :  13  f. ;  53  :  12,  etc.),  etc. 

Among  other  arguments  for  the  exilic  date  from  similarity  of 
expression  see  those  with  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  :  e.g.  chap. 
3,  cf.  Jer.  20 :  14  ff. ;  Job  6 :  15,  cf.  Jer.  15  :  18;  Job  19 :  7  f.,  cf. 
Lam.  3  :  6-9.  This  argument  from  parallels  of  literary  expression 
is  an  uncertain  one  as  to  which  is  the  earlier  or  original,  and  it  is 
one  "that  the  best  critics  do  not  press,  as  it  is  encumbered  ^dth 
doubt  and  difficulty,  and  is  apt  to  resolve  itself  into  a  matter  of 
subjective  impressions."  ^ 

Among  the  authorities  in  favor  of  the  exilic  dating  of  Job  are 
Davidson,  Ryle,  Aitken,  Cheyne  formerly  (cf.  Job  and  Sol.).  Cf. 
Driver  =  Exile  or  shortly  after. 

On  the  other  hand  some  of  the  facts  favoring  a  post-exilic 
date  are :  (a)  Righteous  Job  is  a  typical  character  repre- 
senting Israel.  Such  a  consciousness  of  national  self- 
righteousness  points  to  a  time  after  the  reforms  of  Ezra- 
Nehemiah,  458-432  b.c. 

Cf .  also  the  absence  of  consciousness  of  sinfulness  in  the  Asaphic 
and  Korahite  psalms,  which  are  assigned  to  the  closing  part  of 
the  Persian  period ;  see  p.  231. 

1  Davidson,  Job,  Ixvi  f. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  11.  6706  (Davison).  But  note  comment  in  Gray,  Introd. 
126. 


238      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

A  different  argument  is  followed  here  by  some  scholars,  viz.  that 
in  Deut.-Isa.  the  problem  of  suffering  is  treated  as  related  to  the 
nation  (i.e.  the  "Servant  of  Jehovah"  =  Israel);  but  in  Job,  as 
related  to  the  individual,  —  Job  standing  for  an  individual  experi- 
ence not  typif  jdng  that  of  the  nation.  As  the  conception  of  the 
individual  in  the  development  of  O.  Test,  thought  was  later  than 
that  of  the  nation,  the  inference  is  that  the  book  of  Job  must  have 
followed  Deut.-Isa.  chronologically.^ 

(b)  Satan  is  mentioned  (chaps.  1  f.),  a  character  else- 
where named  only  in  post-exilic  literature ;  (c)  the  angelol- 
ogy  of  the  book  finds  its  closest  parallel  in  the  late  book  of 
Daniel,  167-165  b.c. 

The  other  references  in  post-exiHc  literature  to  Satan  are  in 
Zech.  3 : 1  ff.  (519  b.c.)  ;  Ps.  109 : 6  ( =  post-exihc) ;  and  1  Chr. 
21 : 1  (c.  300-250  b.c).  The  conception  of  Satan  in  Job  appears  to 
be  intermediate  between  those  of  the  Zechariah  and  the  Chronicles 
passages.  For  (a)  while  in  the  Zech.  and  Job  sections  there  is 
much  in  common  (Satan  in  both  being  subordinate  to  Jehovah), 
yet  in  Zech.  his  spirit  of  maliciousness  is  exercised  against  one  who 
is  sinful  (cf.  Zech.  3:3,  i.e.  the  "filthy  garments")?  while  in  Job 
he  is  moved  against  one  who  is  righteous,  and  instigates  Jehovah 
against  him  (cf.  Job  1 :  9  ff. ;  2  :  3  ff.) ;  (b)  in  both  passages  (Zech. 
and  Job),  in  the  original  the  article  is  employed  (=  lit.  "the 
satan,"  i.e.  the  accuser  or  adversary) ;  but  in  1  Chr.  21 : 1,  "Satan  " 
is  a  proper  name  as  the  article  is  omitted,  i.e.  his  personahty  is 
distinctly  recognized ;  and  (c)  a  further  step  is  seen  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  in  the  Chr.  passage,  as  Satan  there  incites 
David  (i.e.  man)  against  God. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  parallels  in  angelology  with  Daniel : 
in  both  they  are  termed  "holy  ones"  {e.g.  Job  15:15,  R.  V., 
cf .  Dan.  4  :  14 ;  though,  cf .  their  Hmitations  in  Job  4:18;  21 :  22 ; 
25  :  2).  Cf.  also  their  intercessory  office  (Job  5  :  1),  with  the  con- 
ception of  each  nation  with  its  guardian  angel  in  Daniel  (cf. 
10:13,20;   12:1). 

(d)  The  condition  of  social  and  political  disturbance 
reflected  in  the  book  (cf.  7:1;  12  :  17-25 ;  14  : 1  f.),  as  well 
as  its  speculative  tone,  harmonizes  best  with  a  late  date. 
And  (e)  with  this  late  age  the  'inwardness  of  the  morality'^ 
expressed  in  such  passages  as  29  :  12  ff. ;  31 : 1  ff.  is  in  accord. 

1  Cf.  Peake,  Job,  39.  McFadyen,  Introd.  280.  Gray,  Introd.  125. 
Strahan,  Job,  19. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     239 

Among  other  reasons  given  for  the  post-exiHc  period  are :  (/) 
the  alleged  dependence  of  Job  15  :  7  f .  on  Prov.  8  :  22  ff.  (especially 
vs.  25),  on  the  supposition  that  Prov.  1-9  is  late  post-exilic.  Cf., 
however,  Davidson,  Driver,  etc.,  who  hold  this  order  of  dependence, 
but  date  the  Prov.  section  as  pre-exilic,  and  Job  exilic.  The 
originality,  however,  may  rest  with  the  Job  section  {e.g.  Toy). 
(g)  The  parallel  between  Job  21 :  17  and  Prov.  13  :  9 ;  24  :  20,  in 
which  it  is  claimed  that  Job  is  clearly  a  citation  from  Prov.  (Davi- 
son, Gibson,  etc.).  (h)  The  parody  on  Ps.  8  :  4  f .  in  Job  7  :  17  f., 
from  the  standpoint  of  Ps.  8  being  post-exilic.  While  the  priority 
here  seems  evidently  to  be  with  the  psalm,  the  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining its  date  precludes  any  satisfactory  inference  from  it,  as 
bearing  upon  the  age  of  Job.  (i)  Those  who  adopt  the  view  that 
the  Jews  suffered  severel}^  f rom  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  c.  350  b.c,  find 
in  that  event  a  fitting  occasion  for  the  discussion  of  the  problem 
of  the  suffering  righteous,  which  is  set  forth  in  Job  (cf.  also  Isa. 
63:17;  64:5  f.,  Kent),  (j)  The  similarity  of  the  questioning 
spirit  between  Job  and  Malachi  (e.g.  2:17;  3 :  14 ;  cf .  also  the 
general  temper  of  the  book  =  c.  460  b.c,  McFadyen).  (k)  The 
prophetic  conflict  with  heathenism,  which  lasted  as  late  as  Deutero- 
Isaiah  and  later,  does  not  appear  in  Job.  Thus  in  Deut.-Isa.  c. 
540  B.C.,  God's  power,  as  inferred  from  His  creative  works,  is  used 
as  an  argument  against  idolatry  {e.g.  40:  12  ff.).  In  Job  it  is 
assumed  apparently  as  a  generally  accepted  doctrine  on  the  part  of 
non-Israelites,  e.g.  Job's  friends.  From  this  fact  the  inference  is 
that  the  date  of  Job  must  be  later  than  Deut.-Isa.  (Peake). 

Other  arguments  are  (l)  the  comparison  of  Prov.  8  and  Job  28, 
in  which  the  priority  is  claimed  for  the  description  in  the  former. 
On  this  point,  however,  the  judgment  of  scholars  differs ;  cf .  Comms. 
and  Introds.  in  loc.  And  (m)  the  conception  of  double  restoration 
set  forth  in  Job  42  :  12,  106 ;  cf .  Isa.  61 :  7 ;  Zech.  9:12;  Jer. 
16 :  14-18. 

Between  the  exilic  and  the  post-exilic  datings  of  the  poem 
it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  decide,  but  on  the  whole  the  latter 
appears  more  probable,  though  the  former  view  has  strong 
arguments  in  its  favor  and  there  are  many  who  consider 
them  conclusive.  The  closing  part  of  the  Persian  period, 
c.  350  ff.  B.C.,  to  which  a  number  of  scholars  assign  its  com- 
position, may  accordingly  be  taken  as  a  date  as  reasonably 
certain  as  any  suggested  in  the  post-exilic  age. 

''When  we  take  the  ideas  of  the  book  into  consideration,  we 
see  that  it  is  best  understood  as  the  provisional  summing  up 
of  a  long  period  of  meditation  under  the  combination  of  special 


240      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

influences,  which  existed  in  the  post-exiUc  age  and  at  no  other 
period."  ^ 

The  relation  of  Job  to  Isa.  53  is  used  as  an  argument,  both  by 
those  holding  the  exilic  and  post-exiHc  dates  in  support  of  their 
position.  The  teaching  of  the  chap,  in  Isa.  is  more  developed  than 
in  Job.  Cf.  the  doctrine  of  vicarious  suffering,  53  :  6,  10,  which  is 
not  taught  in  Job.  Hence  those  holding  the  exihc  origin  of  Job 
consider  that  it  precedes  Isa.  40  ff .  chronologically.  Most  scholars, 
however,  inchne  to  the  other  view  of  the  historical  order  of  the 
two  writings.  The  problem  is  further  compHcated  by  the  theory 
of  some  recent  scholars  (cf.  pp.  198  f.,  iii.  k.)  that  the  Servant  pas- 
sages in  Isa.  40  ff .  are  later  insertions  ;  also  by  the  question  of  the 
present  book  of  Job  as  related  to  an  earlier  form  of  the  story  (cf . 
271,  iii.  /.).  (Note  that  Cheyne  admits  the  possibihty  that  both 
Isa.  53  and  the  original  Job,  —  of  which,  according  to  his  view, 
chaps.  1 : 1-2  :  13  ;  42  :  7-17  =  what  has  been  preserved,  —  date 
c.  500  B.C.)  While  the  view  of  Davison  seems  a  reasonable  one, 
viz.  that  either  the  two  writings  (i.e.  Job  and  Isa.  40  ff.)  are  en- 
tirely independent,  or  Job  is  the  earher  of  the  two,  it  can  hardly 
count  (in  view  of  the  complications  of  the  problem)  as  a  decisive 
factor  in  determining  the  date.^  Cf.  also  the  statement  of  Mc- 
Fadyen  to  the  effect  that  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  suffering 
in  Deut.-Isa.  ''stands  without  serious  influence  on  the  subsequent 
development  of  rehgious  thought  in  the  O.  Test."  ^ 

Another  argument,  which  has  been  used  as  bearing  on  this 
question,  is  the  language  of  the  book,  which,  it  is  claimed,  points 
to  a  relatively  late  age.  It  is  ''peculiar  and  striking,"  containing 
a  considerable  admixture  of  Aramaic  words,  and  others,  less  numer- 
ous, of  Arabic  origin.  But  the  opinion  of  scholars  differs  as  to  the 
conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  linguistic  traits.  Not  only  is  a 
late  date  inferred  from  these  facts  by  some  scholars,  but  a  com- 
paratively early  one  from  the  same  data  by  others. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  variant  post-exilic  dates  for  Job : 
almost  any  time  between  the  Exile  and  300  b.c.  (G.  A.  Smith). 
The  main  portion  =  c.  500-450  b.c,  though  possibly  later  (Duhm, 
EBi,  iii.  3801).  Possibly  c.  450  b.c.  (Strahan).  450-350  b.c. 
(McFadyen).  c.  400  b.c.  (H.  P.  Smith,  Gray,  Gordon ;  cf.  Peake). 
5th  or  4th  centuries  B.C.  (Moore,  LOT,  240).  The  closing  years 
of  the  Persian  period,  i.e.  350-332  b.c.  (Kautzsch,  Kent,  Bennett, 
Cheyne  =  EBi,  ii.  2485  f.).  Late  Persian  or  possibly  early  Greek 
period,  i.e.  350-300  b.c.  (Toy,  Cheyne  =  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  pp. 
xvi,  159  ff.).  Cf.  Schmidt  =  period  of  the  diadochi  or  first  of 
the  Ptolemies. 

1  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2488  (Cheyne).  ^  cf.  McFadyen,  Introd.  280. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  671a  (Davison). 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN  PERIOD     241 

For  additions  to  the  poem,  e.g.  chaps.  28 ;  32-37  ( =  Ehhu 
speeches),  etc.,  cf.  pp.  272  f.,  iii.  h.-k. 

For  the  view  of  an  earlier  book  of  Job  upon  which  the  present 
book  is  based,  cf.  pp.  271,  iii./. ;  166,  ii.  I. ;  256,  ii.  2.  c.^ 

4.  Legal  Literature.     The  Priestly  Code  (P) 

The  Priestly  Code  includes,  in  addition  to  a  portion  of  the 
historical  material  embodied  in  the  Hexateuch,  which  has 
already  been  considered  (cf.  pp.  17  f.),  a  large  proportion  of  the 
legal  sections  in  those  books,  such  as  Ex.  25 :  1-31 :  17  (18) ; 
chaps.  35-40 ;  Leviticus  and  a  large  part  of  Numbers. 
These  laws  which  relate  largely  to  the  ritual  of  worship  and 
matters  which  are  ceremonial  in  character,  rather  than  to 
those  which  are  civic  or  ethical  in  their  bearing,  are  ^'marked 
throughout  by  a  sameness  of  tone  and  spirit. '^ 

While  this  Code  is  usually  designated  by  the  symbol  P,  by  some 
it  is  denoted  by  P^;  while  the  Law  of  Holiness,  Lev,  17-26 
(  =  usually  H),  is  marked  as  P^ 

The  characteristics  of  this  document  have  previously  been 
described  in  connection  with  the  treatment  of  the  historical 
material  which  it  contains  (cf.  pp.  17  f.).  It  remains  now  to 
consider  its  date,  in  its  present  form,  more  especially  as  it  is 
determined  by  the  legal  part  of  it. 

The  following  facts  which  bear  upon  this  point  may  be 
noticed :  First,  many  features  of  the  Priestly  legal  code 
are  in  advance  of  the  Deuteronomic  legislation,  621  B.C., 
and  point  to  a  later  age.  Thus  (a)  the  central  sanctuary, 
the  end  aimed  at  in  Deuteronomy  (enjoined  but  not  real- 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Job,  LOT, 
408  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  123  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  154  ff.,  199.  McFad- 
ven,  Introd.  264  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  419  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  115  ff.  Moore, 
LOT,  233  ff.  HDB,  ii.  660  ff.  (Davison) ;  iv.  136  (Budde) ;  9256  f . 
(Siegfried) ;  extra  vol.  730  f.  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  2465  ff.  (Cheyne) ; 
iii.  3801  (Duhm) ;  iv.  5333  f.  (Toy).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Job,  espee. 
Camb.  B.  (Davidson) ;  West.  C.  (Gibson) ;  Cen.  B.  (Peake) ;  Bible  Hand- 
books (Aitken).  Strahan,  Job.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  91  ff.  Cheyne, 
Job  and  Sol.  11  ff.,  71  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  158  ff.  Cheyne, 
Founders,  etc.,  340  ff.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  202  ff.  Schmidt,  Poets,  75  ff. 
H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  363  ff.,  500.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  235  f.  Wade, 
O.  T.  Hist.  18  f.,  507  f.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  141  f.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
276  ff.  Genung,  Epic  of  Inner  Life,  espec.  102  ff.  Davidson  in  Book 
by  Book,  136  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  286.  Fowler,  Hist. 
Lit.,  etc.,  321  ff. 


242      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

ized),  cf.  Deut.  12 : 1-28,  in  this  Code  is  presupposed  as 
already  existing,  cf.  Lev.  17 : 1-9  ( =  H  and  P),  also  Lev. 
1-7  (=P).  (6)  The  priestly  office,  which  according  to 
Deuteronomy  can  be  performed  by  any  member  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  on  condition  of  his  residence  at  the  central  sanc- 
tuary (Deut.  18  :  1-8 ;  cf.  10  :  8  f.,  etc.)  in  P  is  limited  to  the 
descendants  of  Aaron  (Lev.  7  :  32-34 ;  Num.  18  :  8-20  ;  cf. 
the  function  of  the  Levites,  Num.  3:6  ff . ;  18:2,  etc.). 

(c)  More  definite  provision  is  made  for  the  support  of  the 
Levites  in  this  Code  than  in  the  Deuteronomic  (cf.  Num. 
18  :  21-32 ;  35  :  1-8,  with  Deut.  14  :  22-29.  Cf.  also  Num. 
18  :  17  f.  with  Deut.  12  :  6  f.,  17  f. ;   15  :  19  f.,  etc.).     And 

(d)  the  system  of  feasts  and  sacrifices,  as  given  in  this  Code, 
is  more  elaborate  and  defined  with  more  exactness  than  in 
Deuteronomy.  According  to  Driver,  "the  impression  which 
a  reader  derives  from  Deuteronomy  is  that  the  liturgical 
institutions  under  which  the  author  lived  were  of  a  simpler 
character  than  those  prescribed  in  P."  ^ 

In  connection  with  (d)  above,  note  the  following.  In  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant  [Ex.  20 :  20-23 :  19  (or  33)],  three  agricultural 
feasts  are  specified,  the  dates  of  celebrating  which  depend  upon  the 
seasons,  e.g.  Ex.  23  :  14-16  (cf.  also  Ex.  34  :  22).  In  Deut.  there 
are  also  three,  which  are  mainly  agricultural,  the  first  being  in  part 
historical  (Deut.  16  :  1-17,  see  vss.  9,  13).  In  Lev.  23  ( =  H  and 
P),  there  are  six  sacred  seasons  in  addition  to  the  Sabbath;  two 
of  which  are  agricultural  {i.e.  wave  sheaf,  vss.  9-14 ;  and  weeks, 
vss.  15-21) ;  one  partially  so  (i.e.  booths,  vss.  33-36,  39  ff.) ; 
the  remainder  being  partly  historical  and  partly  purely  reUgious. 
This  seems  to  indicate  a  definite  progress  and  difference  of  age  in 
the  origin  of  the  several  Codes.  ''We  should  expect  that  in  the 
course  of  time  feasts  would  be  added,  and  for  the  sake  of  general 
convenience  their  dates  more  definitely  fixed."  ^ 

'  Secondly,  in  some  details  the  legislation  of  the  Priestly 
Code  marks  an  advance  upon  the  constitution  of  the  restored 
Jewish  community,  outhned  in  Ezek.  40-48  ( =  572  B.C.), 
and  hence  points  to  a  later  stage  of  compilation.  For 
example,  in  Ezek.  44 : 6-16,  the  Levites  (who  according  to 
Deuteronomy  have  the  privilege  of  performing  priestly 
offices  at  the  central  sanctuary,  cf.  18  :  1  ff.),  it  is  stated,  are  to 
be  deprived  of  this  prerogative  on  account  of  their  idolatry, 

I  Cf.  LOT,    138.  2  Cf.  HDB.  ii.  3656  f.  (Woods). 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     243 

and  are  henceforth  to  perform  the  menial  offices  of  the  sanc- 
tuary (cf.  vss.  10  f.,  14).  It  is  further  added  that  in  the 
future  the  ''sons  of  Zadok/'  for  their  fidehty  to  Jehovah,  are 
to  have  the  exclusive  priestly  right  (vs.  15).  The  inference 
from  this  seems  clear  that  the  Levites  are  to  be  deprived  of  a 
privilege  which  they  had  enjoyed  up  to  that  time.  In  the 
Priestly  legislation,  on  the  other  hand,  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  Levites  and  priests,  as  to  their  respective  rank  and 
prerogatives,  is  assumed,  e.g.  Num.  chaps.  1-9  (cf.  especially 
3 :  5  ff. ;  1 :  48  ff.).  This  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
legislation  in  the  Priestly  Code  is  later  than  Ezekiel. 

Thirdly,  the  completed  Priestly  legal  code,  as  compared 
with  the  Law  of  Holiness  (Lev.  17-26),  represents  a  further 
progress  in  several  of  the  laws  (cf.  pp.  186  f.).  The  inference 
from  this  fact  for  the  later  age  of  the  Priestly  Code  is  clear. 

In  harmony  with  the  late  date  of  the  compilation  of  P,  reference 
may  also  be  made  to  the  lofty  conception  of  deity  and  other  points 
of  religious  (theological)  emphasis  in  this  document ;    cf .  pp.  17  f . 

The  natural  conclusion  from  these  facts  is  that  the  Priestly 
Code,  in  its  present  form,  is  not  only  later  than  the  Deuter- 
onomic  Code,  621  b.c,  but  also  subsequent  to  Ezekiel 
40-48  (572  B.C.)  and  the  Law  of  Holiness  (c.  560-550?  B.C.), 
which  represents  the  earliest  section  of  the  Priestly  Code  to 
be  compiled.  Thus  the  late  exilic  or  early  post-exihc  period 
is  the  time  to  which  all  the  lines  of  evidence  lead  for  the 
compilation  of  this  Code,  —  a  date  which  is  almost  univer- 
sally held  by  Old  Testament  authorities  to-day. 

This  conclusion  for  the  date  of  the  Priestly  Code,  from  a 
comparison  of  its  legal  portions  with,  other  Codes,  is  con- 
firmed by  several  fines  of  external  evidence.  Thus  (a)  the 
religious  practices  of  pre-Deuteronomic  times  indicate  a 
much  simpler  and  less  strict  ritual  than  the  provisions  of  this 
Code.  In  addition  to  the  facts,  which  have  previously  been 
considered  (cf.  pp.  125  f.,  c),  that  sacrifices  were  not  limited  to 
one  place,  nor  confined  to  priestly  officiators  in  that  period 
(though  such  restrictions  are  presupposed  in  the  Priestly 
Code,  e.g.  Lev.  17:3;  Num.  18 :  1  f.,  etc.,  as  w^ell  as  Deuter- 
onomy, cf.  pp.  125  f.),  is  the  inference  from  the  narratives  of 
the  Ark  at  Shiloh  (1  Sam.  1-3),  viz.  that  its  arrangements 
were  of  a  simpler  character  than  the  descriptions  of  the  Ark 


244      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

in  P  (cf .  Ex.  35-40 ;  Num.  3-4) .  A  number  of  the  institutions 
prominent  in  P,  such  as  the  day  of  atonement  (Lev.  16), 
Jubilee  year  (Lev.  25 : 8-13),  sin  offering  -(Lev.  6 :  24-30, 
etc.),  etc.,  are  not  referred  to  in  pre-exihc  hterature. 

Note  also  the  fact  that  the  legislation  of  JE  harmonizes  with  the 
rehgious  customs  and  practices  in  the  times  of  the  Judges  and  the 
early  monarchy ;  that  D's  laws  correspond  to  the  spirit  and  practice 
of  the  7th  century  B.C.  and  following ;  while  the  laws  of  P  express 
the  legahzing  tendency  manifested  in  Ezekiel  and  in  the  period 
following  the  Return,  c.  537  b.c. 

The  account  of  pre-exihc  history  given  in  Chronicles  represents 
P  as  being  in  operation  in  that  period,  but  that  history  is  a  late 
work  and  interprets  past  events  from  the  standpoint  of  this  later 
age.     Cf .  on  Chronicles  pp.  9  f . ;  cf.  63  ff.,  67  f . 

(6)  The  positive  evidence  that  the  first  appearance  of  the 
Priestly  law  in  history  was  in  connection  with  the  reforms  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  In  the  year  445  (444)  b.c,  a  legal  code 
was  read  before  a  public  gathering  of  the  people  of  Jerusalem 
(cf.  Neh.  8  :  1  ff.),  which  was  either  this  Code  or  was  a  larger 
Code  of  which  P  was  a  part.  That  P  was  at  least  contained 
in  it  is  undoubted  from  the  details  of  the  feast  of  booths, 
which  was  celebrated  at  that  time  (Neh.  8  :  13  ff.),  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  P  (and  H ;  cf.  Lev.  23  :  39-43), 
rather  than  with  the  ritual  of  Deuteronomy  (cf.  16  :  13,  15), 
which  makes  no  mention  of  dwelling  in  ''booths"  (cf.  Neh. 
8  :  14),  nor  of  the  eighth  day  (Neh.  8  :  186).  This  last  provi- 
sion also  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  Solomon,  who, 
according  to  the  account  in  the  book  of  Kings  of  the  celebra- 
tion of  this  feast  (1  Ki.  8 :  65  f.)  dismissed  the  people  on  the 
eighth  day  (i.e.  in  accordance  with  the  law  as  known  in 
Deut.  16:13-17).^  The  people  also  in  the  time  of  Ezra 
apparently  had  not  previously  known  of  this  law  as  detailed 
in  P  (cf.  Neh.  8 :  14,  also  17).  ''The  inference  seems  to  be 
inevitable  that  the  legislation  of  which  it  is  a  part  had  never 
been  promulgated  before."  ^ 

1  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  the  late  Chronicler,  who  views  the 
past  from  the  standpoint  of  P,  changed  the  representation  given  in  Kings 
of  the  dismissal  on  the  eighth  day.  In  harmony  with  P  he  has  "a  solemn 
assembly"  held  on  that  day  (cf.  2  Chr.  7 :  9). 

2  This  point  at  least  is  clear,  that  this  was  the  first  occasion  of  which 
there  is  any  record  of  the  provisions  of  P  being  carried  out  in  detail.     Cf . 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF  PERSIAN  PERIOD     245 

It  may  be  noticed  that  references  in  post-exilic  literature,  before 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  seem  to  imply  that  the  Deut.  Code  was  the 
only  one  in  operation.  This  is  inferred  from  such  facts :  (a)  as 
found  in  Hag.  2  :  11-13,  where  the  people  are  referred  to  the  priests 
for  a  point  of  legal  interpretation,  according  to  the  directions  in  D 
(cf.  Deut.  24 : 8;  also  17 :  11),  and  not  to  a  written  law  (cf.  also 
Mai.  2:7).  Further  (6)  for  the  reason  that  Malachi  employs  the 
word  minhah  to  include  sacrificial  victims  (cf.  1 :  10  f.,  13),  a  term 
which  is  restricted  in  P  to  ''meal-offerings"  (cf.  in  P  from  Ex. 
29:41  through  the  Hex.  101  times).  Notice,  however,  that  in 
other  details,  e.g.  tithes  and  heave-offerings,  Malachi  approaches 
more  closely  P ;  cf .  3  :  8,  10  ^vith  Num.  18  :  21  ff.  (P) ;  Neh.  10  :  35 
ff.,  38,  and  note  the  simpler  provisions  in  Deut.  14 :  23  ff.,  27,  29  ; 
cf.  12  :  11 ;  26  :  12.  It  has  accordingly  been  inferred  that  Malachi 
may  "belong  to  an  intermediate  stage  of  practice  out  of  which  the 
regulations  of  P  finally  emerged."  And  (c)  cf.  also  the  reference 
in  Malachi  to  the  priests  as  ''sons  of  Levi"  (3:3;  2  :  4-8),  which 
is  in  harmony  with  the  usage  in  the  Deut.  Code  (cf.  p.  126,  also 
p.  208). 

The  opinion  of  scholars  is  divided  as  to  whether  the  Law  which 
was  read  on  this  occasion  (Neh.  8 :  1  ff.)  contained  all  the  Penta- 
teuch (or  all  its  legal  codes,  i.e.  the  combination  of  the  Book  of  the 
Covenant,  D  and  P),  or  the  Priestly  Code  alone,  including  the  his- 
torical material  in  P.  In  favor  of  the  former  view  are  Ryle,  Kittel, 
Hunter,  W.  R.  Smith,  Woods,  Wade,  etc.  As  favoring  the  second 
view  may  be  mentioned,  Bennett,  Kautzsch,  McFadyen,  Gray, 
Budde,  Comill,  CHB,  Hex.,  Kent,  Chapman,  etc.^ 

And  (c)  a  further  point  may  also  be  alluded  to  as  confirm- 
ing this  date,  viz.  that  whereas  previous  to  444  B.C.  there  is 
no  allusion  in  literature  to  the  Priestly  Code,  nor  marked 
evidence  of  its  influence,  subsequent  to  this  date,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  reforms  of  this  period,  these  laws  are  pre- 
supposed in  the  Old  Testament  literature.^ 

Cf.  especially  the  influence  of  P  on  the  Chronicler,  i.e.  in  the 
parts  of  Chr.  and  Ezra-Nehemiah,  which  belong  to  the  compiler 
(Ch.),  cf.  pp.  63  f.,  67,  201,  203  f.^ 

e.g.  HDB,  iii.  1086  (Harford-Battersby).     For  a  different  view,  cf.  Davies, 
Ezra,  etc.,  8  ff. 

^  Cf.  summary  of  opinions  on  this  subject  in  CHB,  Hex.  i.  139,  n. 
d.     EBi,  iii.  2741  (Gray). 

2  Cf.  a  parallel  argument  in  reference  to  Deuteronomy,  p.  127,  e. 

3  It  may  be  noted  that  instances  in  the  earlier  historical  literature  of 
the  influence  of  Priestly  phraseology  (e.g.  in  1  Sam.  2  :  225 ;  1  Ki.  8  :  1,  5, 
etc.)  are  now  regarded  as  the  work  of  late  compilers.  See  partial  list,  pp. 
267  f.,  V.  k. 


246      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

While  the  cumulation  of  evidence  is  confirmatory  of  this 
late  date  of  P,  the  reader  is  again  reminded  of  the  distinction 
between  the  date  of  the  compilation  of  any  document  and 
the  age  of  its  constituent  parts.  The  Priestly  Code  is  to  be 
thought  of  as  representing  a  long  process  of  development. 
That  a  Priestly  ritual  in  some  form  existed  in  pre-exihc 
times  (a  law,  however,  which  was  not  accessible  to  the 
people  or  known  by  them)  seems  clear  from  references  in 
Deuteronomy  (cf.  17  :  11  and  24  :  8).  The  Prophetic  docu- 
ment also  (JE),  in  its  description  of  the  Mosaic  age,  mentions 
the  ^Hent  of  meeting"  (e.g.  Ex.  33 :  7-11 ;  Num.  11 :  16  ff., 
24  ff. ;  12 :  4  ff. ;  Deut.  31 :  14  f.).  Mention  is  also  made  of 
different  priestly  institutions  in  early  history,  e.g.  unclean 
food  (Judg.  13:4,  7;  cf.  Lev.  11:2  ff.  =  P) ;  Nazirites 
(Judg.  13  :  5,  7 ;  16  :  17 ;  Am.  2 :  11  f. ;  cf.  Num.  6  :  2  ff .  = 
P) ;  shew-bread  (1  Sam.  21 :  6 ;  cf.  Lev.  24 :  5-9  =  P),  etc. 
These  facts  indicate  that  such  matters  of  priestly  interest 
were  ancient,  even  though  undoubtedly  the  ritual  connected 
with  them  was  originally  of  a  simpler  character  than  in  the 
form  in  which  it  exists  in  the  present  Priestly  Code. 

The  antiquity  of  certain  priestly  rites  and  regulations  is  shown 
by  the  Deuteronomic  Code  in  which  they  are  also  found.  Thus 
(a)  the  prohibition  of  eating  blood  (Deut.  12  :  16,  23  ;  cf .  P  =  Gen. 
9:4;  Lev.  3  :  17  ;  7  :  26  f .,  etc.) ;  also  (b)  the  flesh  of  animals  dying 
of  themselves  (Deut.  14  :  21 ;  cf .  P  or  H  =  Lev.  17  :  15 ;  cf .  JE  = 
Ex.  22  :  31)  and  especially  (c)  the  distinction  between  clean  and  un- 
clean meats  [Deut.  14  :  4-20 ;  cf.  Lev.  11 :  26-23  (P) ;  Judg.  13  :  14]. 

Of  the  different  institutions  of  P  the  laws  relating  to  the 
priesthood  appear  to  have  been  among  the  latest  in  gaining 
a  permanent  form.  In  early  times,  as  has  already  been 
noticed  (cf.  pp.  125  f.),  oflSciators  at  sacrifices  were  not  limited 
to  one  class  of  men.  At  the  same  time  there  is  evidence 
which  indicates  that  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  regarded  as  being 
specially  qualified  for  this  office  {e.g.  Judg.  17 :  13 ;  Deut. 
33:10;  Mic.  3:11).  In  the  Deuteronomic  Code  this  is 
formally  expressed  (cf.  12  :  5  ff . ;  16  : 1  ff. ;  10  :  8),  though 
the  pre-eminence  of  the  Aaronic  family  in  the  hne  of  Zadok 
is  also  recognized  (10 :  6 ;  cf.  Aaron,  Ex.  4 :  14  =  R"^^ ; 
18  :  12  =  E,  etc.).  In  Ezekiel  (44  :  6  ff.,  cf.  above,  pp.  242 
f .)  it  is  stated  that  the  Levites  are  to  be  deprived  of  priestly 


HISTORY   AND    LITERATURE    OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     247 

prerogatives,  which  are  to  be  exercised  alone  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Zadok  (vss.  15  ff.)-  ^^  P  this  distinction  between 
priests  and  Levites  is  formally  enacted. 

As  the  Exile  furnished  an  occasion  for  a  reinterpretation 
and  revision  of  much  of  the  previous,  historical  writings, 
from  the  standpoint  of  D,  in  like  manner  it  furnished  to  the 
priesthood  an  incentive  to  preserve  and  reformulate  the 
laws  especially  relating  to  ritual.  And  just  as  the  Deuter- 
onomic  Code  was  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  seventh 
century,  by  recasting  the  Mosaic  principles  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions of  that  age,  so  at  this  later  time  the  Priestly  Code  was 
formulated  to  conserve  the  religious  interests  of  that  critical 
period  in  Israel's  history,  and  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  the 
future.  This  was  done,  partly  by  incorporating  ancient 
laws  and  matters  pertaining  to  ritual  (which  were  naturally 
regarded  as  Mosaic,  since  their  origin  was  lost  in  antiquity) ; 
partly  by  expanding  and  recasting  the  law  and  sacred  cus- 
tom handed  down  from  the  past',  together  with  a  priestly 
interpretation  of  the  traditions  relating  to  the  early  periods 
of  history. 

''All  that  was  implied  by  or  deduced  from  the  teaching  of  Moses 
was  held  to  be  Mosaic,  just  as  we  call  all  that  is  implied  by  or 
deduced  from  the  teaching  of  Christ,  Christian,"  ^ 

These  facts  serve  to  explain  the  literary  setting  of  the 
Priestly  Code,  i.e.  that  it  was  attributed  to  Moses  and  was 
written  apparently  from  the  standpoint  of  his  day.-  For 
as  Bennett  has  well  said  :  ''it  was  not  a  new  law,  but  rather 
as  it  professed  to  be,  an  exposition  of  ancient  tradition  and 
custom.  Naturally  the  form  in  which  ancient  principles  are 
applied  is  determined  by  contemporaneous  needs,  and  in- 
volves novel  details."  ^ 

The  following  statement  by  Driver  admirably  summarizes  the 
modern  view  regarding  the  composition  of  P  :  "  It  is  probable  that 
P  was  written  partly  during  the  Babylonian  Exile,  partly  during 
the  century  that  followed  the  return  to  Judah."  *     About  500  B.C. 

1  Bennett,  Introd.  59.  Cf.  LOT,  154.  Adeney,  Ezra,  etc.,  281  ft. 
Kent,  Lawgivers,  12  ff.,  etc. 

2  Cf.  the  statement  made  in  reference  to  Deuteronomy,  pp.  129  f. 

3  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  84.  Cf.  his  Introd.  24.  Bruce,  Apologetics, 
221,  etc. 

4  Cf.  Driver,  Ex.  p.  xii. 


248      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

is  the  date  quite  generally  given  for  the  completion  of  the  main 
body  of  the  Code.     See  also  p.  266,  v.  a. 

That  the  Priestly  Code  was  not  promulgated  till  445 
(444)  B.C.  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  that  was  the 
first  favorable  opportunity  for  such  action,  owing  to  the 
various  troubles  and  difficulties  of  the  Jewish  community  at 
Jerusalem,  during  the  first  century  after  the  Restoration. 
During  all  this  time  it  may  have  been  subject  to  various 
additions  and  modification,  as  even  subsequent  to  444  b.c. 
there  is  evidence  of  further  changes  in  the  details  of  some 
of  the  laws.^ 

Whether  the  Law  read  by  Ezra  (cf .  Neh.  8 : 1  ff.)  in  445  (444) 
B.C.  contained  the  legislation  of  the  whole  Pentateuch,  or  simply  the 
Priestly  Code  (cf.  pp.  244  f.),  it  seems  evident  that  subsequently 
certain  changes  were  made  in  some  of  the  laws  of  the  latter. 
Thus  (a)  the  law  relating  to  the  poll-tax  is  one  of  these.  For,  ac- 
cording to  Neh.  10  :  32,  a  third  of  a  shekel  was  the  amount  assessed 
in  Nehemiah's  day,  but  in  the  law  as  now  expressed  in  P,  a  half 
a  shekel  is  the  regulation  (cf.  Ex.  30 :  11-16;  cf.  also  the  custom 
in  N.  Test,  times,  Matt.  17  :  24).  (h)  The  tithe  for  the  support  of 
the  priesthood  enforced  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10 :  35-39  and  13 : 
10-14)  seems  clearly  a  vegetable  one  (cf.  10 :  37,  39;  13  :  5,  12). 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the  directions  in  D  (cf .  Deut.  14  :  22-28 ; 
26  :  12-15)  and  the  custom  referred  to  in  Mai.  3  :  8-11 ;  also  in 
a  part  of  P  (cf.  Num.  18).  But  in  Lev.  27  :  32  f.  (P  also),  a  tithe 
upon  the  flocks  and  herds  is  also  called  for.  This  marks  a  distinct 
advance  upon  the  previous  regulation,  and  the  natural  inference 
is  that  it  belongs  later  than  Nehemiah's  day  (cf.  2  Chr.  31  :  6),  etc. 

Cf .  the  statement  of  Moore  in  reference  to  the  long  range  of  time 
represented  by  the  different  elements  in  P.  ''The  older  laws  in  P 
go  back,  substantially  in  their  present  shape,  to  the  days  of  the 
kingdom,  and  in  many  cases  represent  a  prescriptive  usage  which 
is  of  remote  antiquity ;  while  the  latest  additions  to  P  were  made 
at  a  time  so  recent  that  they  had  not  found  entry  into  the  copies 
from  which  the  earliest  Greek  version  was  made  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C."  2 

For  a  classification  of  the  different  strata  in  P,  cf.  p.  266,  v.  a.^ 

1  It  is  the  common  view  that  P  was  formulated  in  Babylonia.  Cf.  an 
excellent  statement  of  the  probability  of  this  conclusion,  Cornill,  Introd. 
114.  For  the  theory  that  this  codification  was  made  in  Palestine,  cf. 
Moore,  LOT,  55  f. 

2  Cf.  Moore,  LOT,  65  f.    See  this  vol.  p.  266,  v.  a.  (d). 

3  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  the  Priestly 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   PERSIAN   PERIOD     249 


5.   Didactic  Literature.    The  Book  of  Ruth 

The  book  of  Ruth  is  without  any  chronological  heading. 
The  following  are  the  facts  from  which  the  date  has  to  be 
inferred:  (a)  the  time  of  the  Judges  has  passed  (cf.  1:1), 
also  David  (4 :  17) ;  (6)  the  marriage  custom  described  in 
4 :  1-12  is  referred  to  as  obsolete  at  the  time  when  the  book 
was  written  (cf.  vs.  7).  This  custom  was  evidently  well 
known  when  Deuteronomy  was  compiled  =  7th  century 
B.C.  (cf.  25  :  5-10),  though  there  is  difference  of  details  in  the 
two  descriptions,  due  possibly  to  ''popular  recollection"  by 
the  author  of  Ruth.  Hence  a  date  subsequent  to  Deuter- 
onomy for  the  book  of  Ruth  is  a  natural  inference. 

It  is  claimed,  however,  by  Driver  and  others  that  Ruth  4  :  7  is  a 
later  addition  to  the  book,  and  hence  is  not  to  be  considered  in 
determining  the  time  of  its  origin. ^ 

(c)  The  traces  of  Aramaic  influence  in  the  language  point 
to  the  post-exilic  age ;  (d)  the  position  of  the  book  in  the 
Hebrew  Canon,  viz.  in  the  third  division  (i.e.  the  Hagi- 
ographa)  argues  also  for  its  late  origin.  If  it  were  an  early 
writing,  it  would  probably  have  been  included  in  the  second 
division  of  the  Canon  (i.e.  the  Prophets).-  And  (e)  in 
harmony  with  an  age  much  later  than  the  setting  of  the  story 

Code,  LOT,  135  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  22  fP.,  53  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  106  fiP. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  72  £f.  CorniU,  Introd.  92  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  32  ff., 
39  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  54  ff.,  64  ff.  Chapman,  Introd.  Pent.,  espee.  110- 
191.  HDB,  ii.  363  ff.  (Woods);  iii.  70  ff.  (Driver);  iv.  653  ff.  (Ken-, 
nedv) ;  extra  vol.  715  ff.  (Kautzsch) ;  of.  also  arts,  on  Ex.,  Lev.  and  Num. 
in  HDB  (Harford-Battersby).  EBi,  ii.  2045  ff.,  2050  ff.  (Cheyne  and  Well- 
hausen) ;  2256  ff.  (Guthe) ;  iii.  2730  ff.,  2739  ff.  (Gray) ;  cf.  arts,  on  Ex., 
Lev.  and  Num.  in  EBi  (Moore).  CHB,  Hex.  i.  121-157.  Kent,  Isr.  Laws 
and  Precedents,  43  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  27  ff.,  71  f .,  75  ff.  W.  R.  Smith, 
O.  T.  Jew.  Churchy  374  ff.,  419  ff.,  442  ff.  Bruce,  Apologetics,  265  ff. 
H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  4  f.,  400  ff.  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  i.  96  ff.,  107  ff. 
Kent,  Jew.  People,  espec.  212  ff.,  243  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  5  f.,  141  ff., 
492  ff.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  72  ff.  Kent,  Lawgivers,  espec. 
30  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  257  f.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  83  ff.  Fow- 
ler, Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  293  f.  Cf.  also  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Ex.-Num. ; 
e.g.  on  Ex.  West.  C.  (McNeile) ;  Camb.  B.  (Driver) ;  Cen.  B.  (Bennett) ; 
on  Lev.  SBOT  (Driver  and  White) ;  Camb.  B.  (Chapman  and  Streane) ; 
Cen.  B.  =  Lev.-Num.  (Kennedy) ;  on  Num.  Int.  Crit.  (Gray) ;  Camb. 
B.  (McNeile). 

1  LOT,  455.     Cf.  Bennett,  Introd.  88. 

2  The  position  of  Ruth  in  the  E.  V.  after  Judges  follows  the  LXX  order. 


250      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

is  the  idealistic  view  which  is  presented  in  Ruth  of  the  rough 
and  turbulent  period  of  the  Judges. 

Further  evidence  of  the  idealizing  element  is  seen  in  the  names 
in  the  book,  e.g.  Mahlon  (1:2=  ''sickness") ;  Chilion  (1:2  = 
*'  pining  "  or  "  vanishing  ")>  etc. 

Other  reasons  for  the  late  date  of  Ruth  are  :  (/)  the  fact  that 
while  the  pre-exiUc  historical  books  have  all  passed  through  the 
hands  of  the  Deuteronomic  compiler  in  the  Exile  (cf .  p.  193,  ii.  3.  c), 
Ruth  has  not.  From  this  it  is  inferred  that  it  is  a  post-exihc  pro- 
duction ;  (g)  further,  it  is  claimed  that  the  expression  "in  the  days 
when  the  judges  judged"  (1 :  1)  is  based  on  the  R^  addition  to 
Judges  ( =  exihc),  e.g.  Judg.  2 :  16. 

An  argument  that  the  composition  of  Ruth  was  late  has  also 
been  derived  (h)  from  the  genealogy  in  4  :  18-22,  on  account  of  its 
affinities  with  the  phraseology  of  P  (cf.  Gen.  5  :  1,  6  ff. ;  11 :  10  ff.), 
which  favors  the  post-exihc  period.  On  the  other  hand,  a  number 
of  scholars  are  of  the  opinion  that  these  closing  verses  of  Ruth  are  a 
later  addition  to  the  book  (cf.  1  Chr.  2 :  10-17),  and  hence  are 
not  to  be  considered  in  determining  the  date. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  the  general  trend  of  opinion  among 
Old  Testament  scholars  to-day  is  in  favor  of  a  post-exilic  date. 
While  the  exact  occasion  in  this  period  cannot  be  determined 
with  certainty,  the  following  view  has  found  wide  acceptance 
among  scholars :  viz.  that  this  book  (in  its  present  form) 
was  written  as  a  protest  against  the  measures  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  (cf.  Ezra,  chaps.  9  f. ;  Neh.  13  :  23-29),  prohibit- 
ing marriage  with  the  foreign  women  of  the  neighboring 
peoples,  by  showing  how  one  of  David's  ancestors  was  a 
Moabitess  (4:17;  cf.  Neh.  13:23),  thus  indicating  the 
lofty  character  of  some  at  least  of  the  women  of  the  sur- 
rounding nations.^ 

The  significance  of  the  book  of  Ruth  from  this  standpoint  is 
emphasized  by  comparing  it  with  the  regulation  in  Deut.  23 : 3, 
which  ''means  that  if  a  Moabite  becomes  a  settler  (client)  in  Israel, 
his  descendants  shall  never  acquire  full  rights  of  citizenship."  ^ 

This  purpose  of  the  book  of  Ruth,  though  it  cannot  be 
proved,  supplies  at  least  a  reasonable  occasion  for  its  writing, 

1  For  a  different  view  of  the  purpose  of  the  book,  cf .  Bennett,  Primer, 
etc.,  99.     HDB,  iv.  3166  (Redpath). 

2  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  398,  n.  1. 


HISTORY   AND   LITERATURE   OF  PERSIAN   PERIOD     251 

and  so  may  be  accepted  tentatively.     A  date  accordingly 
c.  450  or  c.  430  b.c.  may  be  assigned  for  its  composition. 

Cf .  the  possibility  that  the  main  details  of  the  story  may  come 
from  pre-exihc  times.     Cf .  p.  53,  B.  iii.  d}  ^ 

^  For  arguments  in  favor  of  a  pre-exilic  date  for  Ruth,  cf.  LOT,  454  flf., 
etc. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Ruth, 
LOT,  453  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  87  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  129  f.,  197. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  290  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  254  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  108  ff. 
Moore,  LOT,  136  ff.  HDB,  iv.  316  (Redpath).  EBi,  ii.  2087  (Moore) ; 
4166  ff.  (W.  R.  Smith  and^Cheyne).  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  398  f.,  500. 
Kent,  United  Kingd.  57.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  117,  188.  Wade,  O.  T. 
Hist.  9  f.,  223.  Kent,  Beginnings,  etc.,  27  f.,  310  ff.  McFadyen,  Hists. 
335  ff.  Moore,  Judges,  xxxii.  Thatcher,  Judges,  etc.,  175  ff.  Hunter, 
After  Exile,  ii.  40  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  142  f.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Rehg. 
Life,  xvi,  220  f.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  86  f.,  257.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.. 
98  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  309  ff. 


IX.  B.  Narratives  and  Literature  of  the  Persian  Period, 
Chronologically  Outlined,  538-332  b.c.  Historical  narra- 
tives =  Ezra-Nehemiah.  Prophecies  =  Haggai ;  Zechariah  1- 
8;  Malachi;  Isaiah  56-66  (?);  Obadiah;  Isaiah  34-35  (?); 
Joel;  Isaiah  24-27  (?).  Poetical  writings  =  individual 
psalms  and  compilation  of  Psalms  3-89;  Job.  Legal  liter- 
ature =  compilation  of  the  Priestly  Code  (P).  Didactic 
tales  =  the  book  of  Ruth  ^ 

SECTION  I,  538-516  (515)  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  the  Jews,  538-516  (515  B.C.). 
Ezra  1.    The  return  under  Sheshbazzar,  etc.  (with  vss.  1-4,  cf.  2 
Chr.  36  :  22  f. ;  also  Ezra,  6:3-5;  5  :  14  f.).     538-537  b.c. 
2.    List  of  returned  Exiles  and  their  gifts  (cf.  Neh.  7  :  6-73a). 

c.  538  £f.  B.C. 
3  : 1-4  :  5  +  vs.  24.     Building  of  altar ;   Samaritan  obstruc- 
tion, etc.     c.  537-520  b.c. 
5  : 1-6  :  22.     Building  of  the  Temple ;    its  dedication,  etc. 
520  (519)-516  (515)  b.c. 

ii.   Literary  productions,  538-516  (515)  b.c. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  (  =  1 :  1-6).     520 

B.C. 

Hag.  1.     Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  exhorted  to  build  the  Temple, 

etc.     Aug.-Sept.  520  b.c. 
2 :  1-9.     Prediction    of   the   future   glory   of   the   Temple. 

Sept.-Oct.     520  B.C. 
Zech.  1 : 1-6.     An  exhortation  to  repent,  etc.     Oct.-Nov.  520  b.c. 
Hag.  2  :  10-23.     Questions  of  ceremonial,  etc.     Nov.-Dec.  520  b.c. 

2.  Prophetic  messages  of  Zechariah,    chaps.    1 :  7-8 :  23.     519- 
518  B.C. 

Chaps.  1 :  7-6  :  8.  Eight  visions  of  encouragement,  etc.  Jan.- 
Feb.  519  B.C. 

6  :  9-15.     The  High  Priest  (?)  crowned,  etc. 

7-8.  Question  of  fasts;  promise  of  Jerusalem's  pros- 
perity, etc.     Nov.-Dec.  518  b.c. 

1  For  other  literature  which  has  been  assigned  to  this  period  by  differ- 
ent authorities,  cf.  pp.  253,  ii.  3 ;  255  f.,  ii.  2 ;  264  f.,  iv.  6,  10-13 ;  270,  ii.  4. 

252 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       253 

3,  Other  literature  possibly  originating  during  the  period,  538- 
516  B.C. 

a.  According  to  Kirkpatrick  the  following  psalms  belong  with 
more  or  less  probability  to  the  time  immediately  after  the  Return, 
c.  536  B.C.  =  Pss.  92-93;  95-100;  103-104;  107(?);  113-115; 
117(?);  137-138.  Also  86  and  111-112  =  after  the  Return 
(cf.  86 :  13),  but  nothing  to  determine  the  definite  date. 

b.  According  to  the  same  authority  the  following  psalms  belong 
to  520-516  B.C.  Pss.  85  and  87  //  Zech.  1  :  12  ff.  =  c.  520  b.c. 
Pss.  30  and  95-100  =  possibly  at  the  dedication  of  the  Temple, 
516  B.C. 

c.  According  to  Briggs  the  following  33  psalms  date  from  the 
period  536-516  B.C.  =  Pss.  4;  6;  9-12;  14  (=53);  16-17; 
22;  25;  31-32;  34-35;  37-39;  41;  57:1^;  59;  64;  69 :  1  f., 
4,6,136-18,29-31;  70  ( =  40 :  13-17) ;  75-76;  78;  80;  83;  101; 
109:16,  26,  3a,  56,  16-18,  21-27;  140;  143;  144 :  l-2a  +  c, 
7c,  8-11.1 

d.  Some  of  the  other  literature  assigned  to  this  period  is  as 
follows :  — 

(a)  Zeph.  3 :  14-20  =  c.  536  ff.  b.c,  according  to  Kautzsch.^ 
(6)  Isa.  19  : 1-15  =  soon  after  528  b.c.  (cf .  p.  97,  n.  0  according 
to  Cheyne.^ 

(c)  Isa.  63  :  7-64 :  12  =  c.  525  b.c.  (see  p.  212;  p.  260,  y.  a.)  = 
G.  A.  Smith,  Whitehouse,  Wade.^ 

(d)  Isa.  24-27.     c.  520 (?)  b.c.    Cf.  Driver,  Kirkpatrick,  etc.^ 

(e)  Isa.  2:2-4  (// Mic.  4:1-3).  c.  518-516  b.c.  (see  p.  144, 
iii.  d.)  =  H.  P.  Smith.« 

iii.  Composition  of  the  historical  sources  and  literary  productions ^ 
538-516  (515)  b.c. 

a.  In  indicating  sources  of  the  historical  narratives  in  Ezra- 
Neh.,  Ch.  =  the  Chronicler;  E  =  Ezra's  Memoirs;  and  N  = 
Nehemiah's  Memoirs. 

6.  Ezra  1  =  Ch.  or  material  recast  by  Ch.  3  : 1-4  :  5  +  24  and 
6  :  19-22  =  Ch. 

c.  The  hst  in  Ezra  2  (//  Neh.  7  :  6-73a)  may  have  been  derived 

1  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxxix  ff. 

2  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  61,  195.      See  p.  157,  v.  d.  of  this  vol. 

3  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2198  (Cheyne),  etc. 

4  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  494  f.  (G.  A.  Smith).  Whitehouse,  Isa.;  and  Wade, 
Isa.  in  loc. 

5  Cf .  ref.  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  pp.  204  f.  LOT,  221  ( =  early  post-exilio). 
Driver,  Isa.  Life  and  Times  (2nd  ed.),  119.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs. 
490  f.  (cf.,  however,  on  p.  535  =  date  for  this  prophecy,  c.  485  ff.  b.c). 
See  further  this  vol.  220  ff. 

6  Cf.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  359. 


254      AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

from  some  official  register  and  incorporated  by  Ch.     According 
to  some  scholars  it  was  recast  by  Ch.     See  also  iv.  b.,  below. 

d.  The  source  of  Ezra  5 :  1-6 :  18  is  Aramaic.  By  many  it  is 
regarded  as  partially  Ch.  According  to  McFadyen,  however, 
the  influence  of  Ch.  is  ''in  the  main  formal  rather  than  material."  ^ 
Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  Zech.  2 :  6-13,  which  is  the  only  poetic  passage  among  the 
visions,  is  regarded  by  some  scholars  as  reflecting  the  condition  at 
the  close  of  the  Exile,  i.e.  20  years  earher.  Cf.  (a)  the  fact  that 
the  Return  is  spoken  of  as  being  still  future  (vss.  6  f.) ;  also 
(6)  alone  among  the  visions  it  describes  Jehovah's  return  to  Zion 
as  still  future  (vs.  10) ;  (c)  parallels  to  exihc  literature,  e.g.  Isa. 
54  :  2  f . ;  14  : 1  f . ;  and  {d)  no  reference  to  the  Temple.  On  the 
other  hand  this  section  may  be  explained  as  Zechariah's  allusion 
to  the  Jews  still  in  Exile.  Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.  Ben- 
nett, Post.  Exil.  Prophs.  64. 

/.  Zech.  4 :  66-lOa  interrupts  the  narrative  of  the  vision.  By 
some  it  is  considered  a  prophecy  of  Zechariah,  belonging  'Ho  an 
earher  stage  of  the  building  of  the  Temple"  inserted  here  at,  or 
after,  the  time  of  the  compilation  of  the  book.     See  below,  iv.  h. 

g.  Zech.  8  is  made  up  of  ten  short  messages,  viz.  vss.  1-2; 
3;  4-5;  6;  7-8;  9-13;  14-17;  18-19;  20-22  and  vs.  23.  See 
further,  iv.  i.,  below. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  beginning  of  this  period  dates  from  538  b.c,  when  Baby- 
lon was  captured  by  Cyrus,  and  the  Jews,  in  common  with  other 
exiled  peoples,  were  granted  permission  to  return  to  their  own 
land  (Ezra  1).  The  date  of  the  close  of  this  period,  333  (332)  B.C., 
=  the  conquest  of  the  Persian  empire  by  Alexander  the  Great 
(cf.  pp.  300  f.).  516  (515)  =  the  year  in  which  the  Temple  was 
completed  [Ezra  6:  15  =  6th  year  of  Darius,  522  (521)-486  (485) 
B.C.].  520  (519)  B.C.  is  derived  from  Ezra  4 :  24  =  2nd  year  of 
Darius.  The  celebration  of  the  Passover,  Ezra  6  :  19  ff.  =  Mch.- 
Apr.  516  (515)  b.c.  (cf.vs.  19  with  vs.  15.     See  on  the  mo.  p.  205). 

6.  The  Ust  of  returned  Exiles,  Ezra  2  (//  Neh.  7 : 6-73a), 
evidently  represents  not  simply  those  who  returned  c.  538  b.c, 
but  as  well  those  of  later  date.  Cf .  Nehemiah  (2:2);  Seraiah 
(2:2)  =  Azariah  (Neh.  7:7)=  Ezra  (?),  444  and  458  b.c.  (Cf., 
however,  Ezra  7:1,  where  Seraiah  =  Ezra's  father.)  As  Nehe- 
miah and  Ezra  stand  near  the  head  of  the  hst  (vs.  2),  the  following 
names  probably  =  leaders  of  other  subsequent,  returning  bands  of 
Jews.  Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.  for  further  discussion  ;  also 
pp.  268  f.,  iii.  6. 

1  Cf.  McFadyen,  Hists.  315. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       255 

c.  On  the  questions  of  the  historical  character  of  the  Return 
(Ezra  1),  and  of  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Temple  (3  :  8  ff.), 
see  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc,  especially  G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of 
XII,  ii.  204  ff.,  215  ff. 

d.  If  the  date  in  Ezra  3  :  1  (  =  building  of  the  altar)  is  accepted, 
the  7th  mo.  (Sept.  -Oct.)  is  probably  that  of  the  year  of  the  Return, 
538  (537)  B.C.  By  many,  however,  3 :  1  is  regarded  as  simply  an 
adaptation  of  Neh.   7  :  736  by  Ch. 

(Note  also  the  view  that  2 :  70-4 : 3  -1-246  relate  events  in 
the  second  year  of  Darius,  520  (519)  b.c.  Cf.  Batten,  Ezra 
etc.,  37  if.). 

e.  For  the  chronological  setting  of  Ezra  4  :  6-23,  cf.  p.  258  f.,  iii.  c. 
/.  For  the  months  given  above  in  Hag.  and  Zech.  cf.  pp.  204  ff. 
g.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  Zech.  1  :  7-6  :  9  belong  to  a  time  when 

serious  rebeUions  convulsed  the  Persian  dominion.  Cf.  espec. 
G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of  XII,  ii.  284. 

h.  Zech.  6 :  9-15  is  undated.  As  the  building  of  the  Temple 
is  referred  to  as  a  future  event  (vs.  12)  this  message  (cf.  also 
4 :  66-lOa,  see  above,  iii.  /.)  may  belong  to  c.  Sept.  520  b.c,  i.e. 
the  initial  period  of  Temple  building.  Note  the  reference  in  Ezra 
(cf.  5:1;  6 :  14)  to  the  fact  that  both  Zechariah  and  Haggai  were 
instrumental  in  inducing  the  people  to  build  on  this  occasion. 

i.  It  is  uncertain  whether  all  the  short  prophecies,  which  make 
up  Zech.  8  (cf.  above,  iii.  g.)  belong  to  the  same  date  as  chap.  7  or 
not.  Some,  which  represent  the  coming  of  Jehovah  to  Zion  as 
still  future,  may  be  parallel  in  time  to  Haggai's  utterances.  The 
close  of  the  chap.  (vss.  18  ff.)  takes  up  again  the  question  of  fasts, 
cf.  chap.  7,  and  hence  is  to  be  assigned  probably  to  the  same  time. 
Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 


SECTION  II,   516  (5i5)-458  (457)   B.C. 

i.  The  period  516  (515)-458  (457)  b.c.  No  narratives  relating 
to  these  years  given  in  Ezra-Nehemiah  except  Ezra  4 :  6.  Cf . 
iv.  a,  below. 

ii.   Literary  productions,  516-458  b.c. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Malachi,  c.  460  b.c. 

Chap.  1.     Jehovah's  love  for  Israel  and  Israel's  selfishness,  etc. 
2  :  1-16.     An  expression  of  judgment  upon  the  unworthy 

priests,  etc. 
2 :  17-4 : 6.     The    coming    of    Jehovah's    messenger    to 

purify,  etc. 

2.  Other  literature  assigned  to  this  period  by  different  scholars. 


256      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

a.  The  compilation  of  the  Priestly  Code  (P),  c.  500  b.c.^ 

h.  The    composition   of   the   Servant   passages   in   Deut.-Isa. 

( =  Isa.  42  :  1-4  ;    49  :  1-6 ;    50  :  4-9  and  52  :  13-53  :  12),  500-450 

B.C.  =  Duhm,  Chejme,  etc.^ 

c.  The  original  Job  story.  (The  only  portions  of  which  that 
have  been  preserved  are  found  in  the  present  book  of  Job,  viz. 
chaps.  1-2 ;   42  :  7-17).     E.g.  Cheyne,  etc.^ 

d.  The  prophecy  of  Joel,  c.  500  B.C.  (though  possibly  in  the 
4th  century  B.C.  =  Driver).* 

e.  The  book  of  Job,  500-450  b.c.  =  Duhm.^ 

/.  Zech.  9-14,  c.  485  ff.  (?)  b.c.  =  Kirkpatrick.^ 

iii.   Composition  of  the  literary  productions,  516-458  b.c. 

a.  Mai.  2:ll-13a  are  regarded  as  an  interpolation  by  some 
scholars,  as  vs.  136  connects  directly  with  vs.  10.  The  language 
and  thought  of  vss.  11  f.  differ  from  the  context.  These  verses 
may  have  been  a  note  added  later  by  the  prophet  himself,  or  by 
an  editor,  after  the  reformations  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  explain- 
ing the  cause  of  divorce.  From  this  standpoint  vs.  13a  is  an 
editorial  connection  of  the  two  sections.  Cf .  Introds.  and  Comms. 
in  loc.     Cf.  contra,  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Mai.  in  loc. 

b.  Some  scholars  consider  Mai.  4:4,  5  f .  as  later  additions 
(J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Kent,  Moore's  LOT,  215).  Cf.  contra,  Comill, 
Introd.  375. 

iv.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  516  (515)  B.C.  =  the  year  in  which  the  Temple  was  com- 
pleted (p.  254,  iv.  a.).  458  b.c.  =  the  date  of  Ezra's  mission  to 
Jerusalem  (p.  258,  iii.  a.).  Though  no  records  of  this  period  are 
found  in  Ezra-Neh.,  the  condition  of  the  Jews  during  those  years 
can  be  inferred  with  much  certainty  from  (a)  the  narratives 
relating  to  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  and  (5)  allusions  in  the  prophet- 
ical writings,  which  belong  to  that  time  and  the  years  following, 
e.g.  Malachi  and  Isa.  56  ff.     Briefly  stated,  it  was  a  period  of 

1  This  date  for  the  compilation  of  P,  or  at  least  the  main  part  of  it 
[  =  pg,  cf.  p.  266,  V.  a.  (c)],  is  a  conclusion  which  is  widely  accepted. 

2  EBi,  ii.  2486  (Cheyne) ;  iii.  3801  (Duhm),  etc.  See  further  pp.  198 
f.,  iii.  k. 

3  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2486  (Cheyne).  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  207.  Schmidt, 
Poets,  97  f.,  80  £f.  =  5th  cen.  b.c.  Cornill,  Introd.  435  =  post-exilic. 
See  further,  p.  271,  iii.  /. 

4  Cf.  Driver,  Joel,  etc.,  25.  For  the  chron.  setting  given  to  Joel  in  this 
vol.  see  268,  ii.  1. 

5  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3801  (Duhm).  For  the  chron.  setting  of  Job  in  this  vol. 
see  p.  270,  ii.  3. 

«  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  442  fif.,  455,  535.  For  the  chron.  setting 
for  Zech.  9-14  in  this  vol.  see  302,  iii.  1. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       257 

disappointment  and  reaction.  The  Jews  formed  a  small,  depend- 
ent community  of  the  Persian  empire.  Surrounded  by  hostile 
tribes  (Ammonites,  Edomites,  Samaritans,  etc.) ;  oppressed  by 
poverty;  disappointed  in  their  religious  expectations  in  connec- 
tion with  the  completion  of  the  Temple,  516  (515)  b.c,  their 
rehgious  ideals  suffered  correspondingly,  —  the  Temple  was 
neglected;  a  spirit  of  scepticism  was  developed  among  some; 
sordid  and  selfish  aims  gained  ascendency,  which  were  manifest 
especially  in  an  attempt  to  better  their  position  by  divorcing  their 
wives  and  forming  marriage  alliances  with  the  women  of  the 
land  (cf.  Malachi).  There  is  but  one  direct  Bibhcal,  historical 
reference  made  to  this  period,  viz.  the  mention  of  an  accusation 
against  the  Jews  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  brought  by  their  enemies 
to  the  Persian  court,  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  i.e. 
c.  485  B.C.  (cf.  Ezra  4:6;  see  p.  258,  iii.  c). 

b.  The  following  are  some  of  the  variant  dates  for  Malachi, 
c.  460-450  B.C.  =  Davidson,  McFadyen,  Bennett  (cf.  his  Post- 
Exil.  Prophs.  96  f.),  etc.  Shortly  before  445  B.C.  (  =  Nehemiah's 
day) ;  cf.  H.  P.  Smith,  Kent,  Cheyne,  etc.  Between  445  and  432, 
or  c.  432  B.C.  ( =  Nehemiah's  2nd  visit  to  Jerusalem) ;  cf.  Driver, 
Kirkpatrick,  Hunter,  Farrar,  etc.  First  half  of  the  4th  cen.  B.C. 
=  EBi,  iii.  2909  f.  (W.  R.  Smith  and  Torrey),  etc. 

SECTION  m,  458  (457)-445  (444)   B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  the  Jews,  458  (457)-445  (444)  B.C. 
Ezra  7  :  1-26.     The  coming  of  Ezra  to  Jerusalem ;  his  commission, 
etc.     Mch.-Apr. — July- Aug.  458  b.c 
7  :  27-8  :  36.     Details  of  preparation ;    those  accompanying 

Ezra,  etc. 
9-10.     Ezra's  vigorous  reform  measures,  etc.     458-457  b.c. 
4 :  (6),  7-23.     Samaritans  prevent  building  of  city  walls,  etc. 
c.  455  B.C.  or  shortly  before  445  b.c.     (Vs.  6  =  c.  485  b.c.) 

ii.    Composition  of  the  historical  sources,  458-445  B.C. 

a.  In  Ezra  7-10  the  following  sections  are  the  work  of  the 
Chronicler  (Ch.)  =  7:1-10  (11);  8:35  f.  (?).  See  also  below, 
under  b  and  c. 

b.  Ezra  7  :  (11),  12-26  belongs  to  the  Aramaic  source,  though 
probably  recast  by  a  Jewish  writer.  ''In  substance  it  is  undoubt- 
edly genuine."  Also  4 : 8-23  =  Aramaic  source  (cf.,  however, 
McFadyen,  who  considers  vss.  17-23  =  Ch.).  4:6  f.,  which  are 
in  Hebrew,  are  of  uncertain  source.^ 

1  See  McFadyen,  Hists.  326  f.  For  a  conservative  estimate  of  the 
Aramaic  sources,  cf.  Davies,  Ezra,  etc.,  14  f. 

8 


258      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

c  Ezra  7  :  27-9  :  15  =  Ezra's  Memoirs  (E) ;  note  the  1st  per- 
son. (Some,  however,  consider  much  in  this  section  as  Ch. ; 
see  Batten,  Ezra,  etc.)  Cf.  chap.  10  =  E  recast  by  Ch.  Note 
the  3rd  person  used  of  Ezra. 

iii.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  dates  458-445  b.c.  are  respectively  the  coming  of  Ezra 
(7 : 7  f .  =  7th  year  of  Artaxerxes)  and  the  mission  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  1:1;  2:1  =  20th  year  of  Artaxerxes).  It  may  be  added 
that  Darius  was  succeeded  by  Xerxes  in  485  b.c.  and  Xerxes  by 
Artaxerxes,  465  (464)-425  (424)  b.c.  In  Ezra  7  :  7  ff .,  the  months 
given  are  the  1st  =  Mch.-Apr.,  when  Ezra's  expedition  left  Baby- 
lon; and  the  5th  mo.  =  July-Aug.,  when  it  reached  Jerusalem 
(7  :  8  f . ;  8  :  31).  The  events  of  chap.  9  may  be  3  or  4  mos.  later 
than  those  of  the  preceding  chap.  The  dates  given  in  chap.  10 
=  9th  mo.  (Nov.-Dec.  cf.  vs.  9),  i.e.  4  mos.  after  Ezra's  arrival 
(cf.  7:8),  and  the  1st  mo.  of  the  following  year  (Mch.-Apr.  457 
B.C.,  cf.  10:17). 

h.  It  is  the  view  of  a  number  of  scholars  now  that  Ezra's  expe- 
dition has  been  antedated,  and  that  it  should  follow  not  precede 
that  of  Nehemiah.  If  this  view  is  correct,  it  necessitates  a  rear- 
ranging of  the  Biblical  sequence  of  events  as  given  in  Ezra-Neh. 
to  a  considerable  extent.  While  the  traditional  order  is  followed 
in  this  volume,  it  is  with  a  recognition  of  the  strong  arguments  for 
the  other  view.  For  the  grounds  for  the  priority  of  Nehemiah's 
mission,  together  with  the  outhne  of  the  Biblical  material  of  Ezra- 
Neh.  from  this  standpoint,  cf.  Ap.  A.,  pp.  327-329. 

c.  The  section  Ezra  4 :  6-23  is  generally  considered  chronologi- 
cally misplaced  for  the  following  reasons :  (a)  this  section  refers 
to  Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  (vs.  6,  ''Ahasuerus"  =  Xerxes;  cf.  7, 
11,  23),  see  above,  n.  a;  while  the  context  refers  to  Cyrus  and 
Darius  (vss.  3  f.,  24) ;  (6)  this  section  describes  the  successful 
opposition  to  the  attempt  of  the  Jews  to  build  the  city  walls  (vss. 
12  f.,  21  ff.),  while  the  context  refers  to  antagonism  against  build- 
ing the  Temple  (vss.  3  f.,  24).  The  exact  historical  occasion  is  a 
subject  of  dispute.  The  order  followed  here  is  based  upon  the 
supposition  that  the  opposition  arose  from  an  attempt  by  Ezra 
to  build  the  city  walls  after  his  reforms  (cf.  chaps.  9  f.),  perhaps 
soon  after  458  B.C.,  or  shortly  before  445  B.C.  This  order,  it  is 
claimed,  helps  to  explain  the  difficulties  of  the  Bibhcal  chrono- 
logical setting  of  Ezra's  mission,  on  the  ground  that  this  hostiUty 
on  the  part  of  the  Samaritans  (Ezra  4  :  7-23)  was  assisted  by  those 
Jews  within  the  city,  who  were  bitterly  opposed  to  Ezra  on  the 
question  of  mixed  marriages.  By  their  united  efforts  the  work  on 
the  walls  (vss.  12  f.)  was  not  only  stopped,  but  Ezra  himself  and 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       259 

those  associated  with  him  were  compelled  to  leave  the  city.  This 
would  explain  the  silence  in  reference  to  Ezra,  and  also  might 
account  for  the  fact  that  his  reforms  are  not  mentioned  by  Nehe- 
miah,  as  they  had  ended  in  failure.  According  to  some  scholars, 
the  allusions  in  Neh.  1  f.  to  disasters  which  had  befallen  the  holy 
city,  are  to  be  explained  as  due  to  the  forcible  interruption  of  the 
work  on  the  walls,  possibly  leading  to  the  demolition  in  part  of 
what  had  already  been  built  (Ezra  4:23).  Cf.  further  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  No  reference  is  found  in  pre-exiHc  Biblical  literature,  or  the 
Assyrian,  to  the  transportation  of  nations  to  Samaria  mentioned 
in  Ezra  4 :  10.  The  "Osnappar"  of  this  verse  is  identified  (a)  by 
many  with  Asshurbanipal  of  Assyria,  668-626  b.c.  (Sayce,  etc.) ; 
(5)  by  others  he  is  considered  to  be  Esarhaddon  of  Assyria,  680- 
668  B.C.,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  in  4  :  2  that  king  is  mentioned 
as  bringing  colonists  to  Samaria.  There  is  no  valid  reason,  how- 
ever, why  these  two  vss.  should  not  refer  to  two  distinct  events 
in  different  reigns.     Cf.  Comms.  in  loc. 

iv.   Literary  productions,  458-445  b.c. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Isaiah  56-66  (Trito-Isaiah),  c.  460- 
445  (?)  B.C. 

Chap.  56 : 1-8.     Promise  to  proselytes  and  eunuchs,  etc. 

56:9-57:21.     Suffering   of    the    community   from    un- 
worthy, spiritual  leaders,  etc. 

58.  Contrast  between  false  and  true  fasting,  etc. 

59.  Explanation  of  failure  of  divine  help,  etc. 

60.  Promise  of  restoration,  etc. 

61.  The  prophet's  endowment,  etc. 

62.  Confidence  that  Israel's  fortunes  will  be  restored, 
etc. 

63  : 1-6.     Jehovah's  vengeance  upon  Edom. 
(63  :  7-64  :  12.     Jehovah's   past   favors    to   His    people ; 
their  rebellion,  etc.) 

65.  Jehovah's  vengeance  against  devotees  of  supersti- 
tion (Samaritans?). 

66.  True  and  false  conditions  of  worship  contrasted, 
etc. 

2.  Other  literature  which  possibhj  belongs  to  460-445  b.c. 

a.  Malachi,  shortly  before  445  b.c.  =  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Kent, 
H.  P.  Smith.i 

b.  Obadiah,  the  same  time  as  Malachi  =  Kent.^ 

1  Cf .  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  Mai. ;    Kent,  Sermons,  etc. ;    H.  P.  Smith,  O. 
T.  Hist.     For  the  chron.  setting  of  Mai.  in  this  vol.  cf.  p.  255,  ii.  1. 

2  Cf.  Kent,  Ibid.     See  also  this  vol.  p.  264,  iv.  3. 


260     AN   INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

V.  Composition  of  the  literary  productions  and  chronological 
notes,  458-445  B.C. 

a.  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  the  different  sections  of 
Isa.  56-66,  in  addition  to  the  introductory  notes  (pp.  208-212), 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Introds.,  Comms.  and  Bible  Diets,  in 
loc.  (see  list,  p.  212  n.  ^).  One  portion,  however,  may  be  noticed 
here,  viz.  63 :  7-64 :  12  in  reference  to  the  date  of  which  great 
diversity  of  opinion  exists.  From  63:18  and  64:11  f.  (=  the 
Temple  burned)  it  might  naturally  be  inferred  that  it  is  exilic, 
though  the  reference  to  the  land  being  possessed  but  a  Httle  time 
(63  :  18,  —  note,  however,  that  this  reading  by  some  is  considered 
uncertain),  does  not  harmonize  with  this  date.  G.  A.  Smith 
favors  the  years  of  disillusion  between  the  Restoration  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Temple  building,  c.  537-520  b.c.  (i.e.  c.  525  b.c). 
The  despair  expressed  in  this  section  may  well  answer,  he  thinks, 
the  spirit  which  Haggai  and  Zechariah  had  to  combat.  Cf.  also 
Whitehouse  and  Wade.^  Cheyne,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  the 
section  to  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  358-337  b.c,  on  the 
ground  of  parallels  of  phraseology  to  Isa.  24-27  and  Pss.  74,  79, 
which  he  regards  as  belonging  to  that  time.  The  burning  of  the 
Temple  (64  :  11  f.)  he  assumes  to  have  occurred  in  connection  with 
the  rebeUions  in  the  West,  in  which  Palestine  was  involved  in  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  (cf.  pp.  273  f.,  iv.  a.).  He  accordingly  dates  it 
between  348-340  b.c.  G.  A.  Smith  considers  the  argument  strong 
but  not  convincing.2  Kent,  who  formerly  dated  this  section  in 
the  time  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus,^  in  his  recent  pubHcations  assigns 
it  to  the  same  date  as  chaps.  56  ff.,  i.e.  prior  to  445  b.c.^ 

SECTION  IV,  445  (444)-433  (432)  B.C. 

i.   Sources  for  the  history  of  the  Jews  445  (444)-433  (432)  b.c. 
Neh.  1.   Nehemiah^s  distress  learning  of   the  condition  of   Jeru- 
salem, etc.     445  B.C. 

2.  His  commission ;    incites  the    people  of    Jerusalem  to 

rebuild  the  walls,  etc.     Mch.-Apr.  445  b.c. 

3.  Apportionment  of  the  work,  etc.     June-July,  445  b.c. 

4.  Samaritan  ridicule  and  intimidation,  etc. 

5.  Measures  for  reheving  social  distress,  etc. 

6  : 1-7  :  5.     Plots    against   Nehemiah ;     completion   of   the 
walls,  etc.     Aug. -Sept.  445  b.c. 

1  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  494  f.  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Whitehouse  and  Wade,  Comms. 
on  Isa.  in  loc.    See  this  vol.  p.  253,  ii.  3.  d.  (c). 

2  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2207  (Cheyne).     Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  xxxi,  349  ff.,  358  fif. 

3  Cf.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  114  f.,  234;   Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  305  ff. 
*  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  390  fif. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       261 

7  :  6-73a.     A  list  of  returned  Exiles,  etc.  (//  Ezra  2  :  1-70). 
7:736-10:39.     The   Law   and   the   covenant.     Sept.-Oct. 

445  (?)  B.C. 
1 1 .     Measures  for  increasing  the  citizenship  of  Jerusalem,  etc. 
12 :  1-26.     List  of  Levitical  and  priestly  families. 
12  :  27^3.     Dedication  of  the  city  walls.     445  (444?)  B.C. 

12  :  44-13  :  3.     Various  officials  appointed,  etc. 

13  :  4-3L     Expulsion  of  Tobiah  ;    measures  of  reform,  etc. 
433  (432)  B.C. 

ii.   Composition  of  the  historical  sources,  445-433  B.C. 

a.  Neh.  1:1-7:5  =  Nehemiah's  Memoirs  (N).  Note  the  first 
person.  Some  portions  of  this  section  are  regarded  by  some 
authorities  as  belonging  to  a  different  source,  especially  chap.  3. 
Cf.  Batten,  Ezra,  etc.,  in  loc. 

b.  For  the  list,  Neh.  7  :6-73a  (cf.  Ezra  2  :  l-70),seepp.253f.,iii.c. 

c.  The  source  of  the  section,  Neh.  7 :  736-10 :  39,  is  evidently 
different  from  that  of  chaps.  1  :  1-7 :  5  (cf.  above  n.  a),  as  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  appear  in  the  third  person  (cf.  8:1-6,  9,  etc.). 
Note  also  that  7  :  736  ff.  is  not  the  continuation  of  7 :  1-5.  By 
many  scholars  these  chaps,  are  regarded  as  Ezra's  Memoirs  recast 
by  the  Chronicler  (Ch.).  Some  assign  9  :  6-10  :  39  to  E  (  =  Ezra's 
Memoirs).  According  to  other  scholars  the  source  at  the  basis  of 
Ch.  here  =  the  ''book  of  Chronicles"  mentioned  in  Neh.  12:23. 
Ryle  thinks  this  section  is  to  be  classified  as  of  distinct  origin, 
practically  contemporary  with  the  events.  Whatever  its  genesis, 
it  seems  "substantially  reliable."  Cf.  further,  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  The  connection  in  Neh.  11  goes  back  to  7 : 4  (5a),  which  is 
interrupted  by  the  intervening  sections.  The  source  of  Neh.  11 
is  probably  a  list  in  Nehemiah's  Memoirs  edited  by  Ch.  (espe- 
cially Ch.  in  vss.  25-36).     According  to  some  vss.  1-2  +  20-24 

=  N.  The  Hst  in  vss.  3-24  is  parallel  in  part  to  1  Chr.  9 :  1-17. 
According  to  some  authorities  the  list  in  12 :  1-26  may  possibly 
have  been  derived  from  "  the  book  of  the  Chronicles"  mentioned 
in  vs.  23.  (This  is  not  the  canonical  book  of  Chr.,  it  should  be 
noted.)  The  source  of  12 :  27-43  is  partially  Ch.  {e.g.  vss.  27-30, 
33-36,  41-43)  and  partially  Nehemiah's  Memoirs  (N),  e.g.  vss. 
31  f.,  37-40.     Neh.  12  :  44-13  :  3  =  Ch.  perhaps  on  the  basis  of  N. 

e.  Neh.  13 : 4-31  =  Nehemiah's  Memoirs  (N).  Note  the  1st 
person.  According  to  some  {e.g.  Kent)  it  is  partially  influenced 
by  Ch.  {e.g.  vss.  56,  136,  22) ;  according  to  others  (Torrey,  H.  P. 
Smith)  it  is  wholly  Ch. 

iii.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  defining  dates  of  this  period  are  the  coming  of  Nehemiah 


262      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

to  Jerusalem  in  the  20th  year  of  Artaxerxes  (Neh.  1:1;  2:1)  = 
445  (444)  B.C.,  and  his  second  appearance  in  the  32nd  year  of  that 
reign  =  433  (432)  b.c.  (Neh.  13:6;  cf.  5:14).  See  further  on 
the  last  date,  n.  h.  below. 

h.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more  detailed  chronological 
data  of  the  Biblical  material  outHned  above.  The  time  covered 
by  Neh.  1:1-7:5  =  Mch.-Apr.  445  (444),  cf.  2:1,  and  Aug.- 
Sept.  of  the  same  year  (6  :  15)  =  completion  of  the  walls.  For 
different  explanations  and  discussion  of  the  variation  in  dates 
(months)  between  2: 1  and  1:1,  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 
As  6  :  15  marks  the  completion  of  the  walls  in  the  mo.  Elul  = 
Aug.-Sept.,  and  also  states  that  the  work  was  accomplished  in 
52  days,  Nehemiah  must  have  begun  his  task  in  June-July. 
According  to  Josephus,  however,  it  took  2  3ts.  and  4  mos.  to 
build  the  walls,  which  some  scholars  think  more  probable  (Ant. 
xi.  5,  §8). 

c.  The  date  of  the  section  Neh.  7  :  736-10  :  39  is  given  in  days  of 
the  7th  mo.  =  Sept.-Oct.  (cf.  7 :  736 ;  8:2;  9:1).  The  year  is 
not  mentioned  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  compiler  had  the 
same  one  in  mind,  i.e.  445  (444)  b.c. 

d.  Cf.  the  view  of  the  chronological  relation  of  Ezra  8-10  to 
Neh.  8-10  =  Ezra  8;  Neh.  7:70-73;  8;  Ezra  9-10;  Neh. 
9-10.  ''This  arrangement  gives  a  continuous  and  consistent 
story,  and  the  numerous  dates  fall  into  sequence."  Moore,  LOT, 
130.     See  further,  Ap.  A.,  p.  329,  i.  d. 

e.  As  an  indication  of  the  time  of  the  compilation  of  the  list, 
Neh.  12  :  1-26,  is  the  name  of  Jaddua  in  vs.  22,  who  is  probably  the 
High  Priest  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  mentioned  by 
Josephus  (cf.  Ant.  xi.  8,  §  5).  Cf.  also  the  name  of  Darius  (vs.  22), 
who  must  accordingly  be  Darius  III,  Codomannus  (336-331  b.c). 

/.  No  date  is  given  for  the  dedication  of  the  walls  (Neh.  12 : 
27  ff.),  which  were  completed  Aug.-Sept.  445  (444)  b.c.  (cf. 
6:15).  Probably  this  service  was  not  long  afterwards.  The 
tradition  preserved  in  2  Mace.  1 :  18,  that  Nehemiah  on  the  25th 
of  Chisleu  (Nov.-Dec.)  celebrated  the  restoration  of  the  altar, 
has  much  in  favor  of  its  probabihty.  This  would  make  this  cere- 
mony about  3  mos.  after  the  completion  of  the  walls.  Another 
theory,  which  does  not  seem  so  Hkely,  is  that  the  formal  act  of 
dedication  did  not  take  place  till  the  time  of  Nehemiah's  second 
visit  in  433  (432)  b.c. 

g.  The  time  of  the  events  in  Neh.  12 :  44-13  :  3  is  given  indefi- 
nitely ;  cf.  ''on  that  day"  (12  :  44 ;  13  :  1),  which  clearly  does  not 
refer  to  the  day  of  rejoicing  mentioned  in  12  :  43.  Some  scholars, 
however,  place  12  :  44-47  immediately  after  12  :  27-43,  but  assign 
13 :  1-3  to  the  time  of  Ezra,  with  whose  narrative  it  is  claimed 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       263 

to  have  affinities,  e.g.  between  Ezra  10:  9  and  10  :  10.     Cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  The  date  of  the  events  in  Neh.  13  : 4  ff.  is  based  on  vs.  6  = 
the  32nd  year  of  Artaxerxes  =  433  (432)  b.c.  There  is  consider- 
able uncertainty  in  reference  to  the  duration  of  Nehemiah's 
governorship.  From  Neh.  5 :  14  the  natural  inference  is  that  it 
covered  a  term  of  12  years,  i.e.  from  445  (444)-433  (432)  b.c, 
and  that  at  the  end  of  this  period  (13 : 6)  Nehemiah  returned  to 
Persia,  and  "  after  certain  days  "  (i.e.  perhaps  a  year)  he  went  a 
second  time  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that  the  per- 
mission of  absence,  granted  to  Nehemiah  by  the  Persian  court  in 
445  B.C.,  was  only  for  a  limited  time  (cf.  Neh.  2 :  5  f.),  and  that 
perhaps  he  remained  in  Jerusalem  for  a  year  or  two  at  the  longest, 
returning  to  his  former,  official  post ;  and  that  the  date  in  13:6 
is  that  of  his  second  visit  to  Jerusalem.  From  this  point  of 
view  Neh.  5 :  14  is  explained,  either  as  a  misunderstanding  of  the 
facts  of  13  :  6  by  the  compiler ;  or,  as  is  assumed  in  the  chronology 
adopted  here,  that  Nehemiah,  while  absent  from  Jerusalem  after 
c.  444  B.C.,  was  still  nominally  the  governor,  and  that  in  433 
(432)  B.C.  he  again  returned  to  Jerusalem.  [Cf.  the  suggestion  of 
some  scholars  that  5 :  14  should  read  from  the  20th  to  the  22nd 
(not  32nd)  years  of  Artaxerxes,  i.e.  that  Nehemiah's  governorship 
=  2  yrs.  (e.g.  EBi,  iii.  3384  f.  =  Kosters  and  Cheyne.)]  Batten 
considers  that  his  first  administration  ended  in  432  b.c,  and  that 
his  second  appointment  was  most  likely  shortly  before  424  b.c.  = 
end  of  Artaxerxes'  reign  (cf.  his  Ezra,  etc.,  45  ff.).  Cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. ;  see  also  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  93. 

iv.  Literary  productions  originating  or  issued,  445^33  b.c  {so?ne 
possibly  =  c.  458-400  b.c). 

1.  The  Priestly  Law  (P)  as  read  by  Ezra  {cf.  Neh.  8).  445 
(444)  B.C. 

Legal  sections  in  Genesis 

Gen.  2  :  2  f .     The  divine  institution  of  the  Sabbath. 
9  :  4-6.     Prohibition  of  blood  and  murder. 
17  :  1-14.     The  rite  of  Circumcision  (narrative  in  form). 

Legal  sections  in  Exodus 

Ex.  12 :  1-13,  43-50.     The   Passover  and   its  ritual   (partially 
narrative  in  form). 

12  :  14-20.     The  feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  and  its  ritual. 

13  :  1-2.     The  law  of  the  First  Bom. 

25  : 1-31 :  17.     The  Tabernacle  and  its  appointments. 
35-40.     The  sequence  of  chaps.  25-31  (in  narrative  form). 


264     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

Leviticus 

Lev.  1 :  1-6  :  7.     Laws  relating  to  sacrifice. 
6  :  8-7  :  38.     Directions  for  the  priests. 
8-10.     The    consecration  of  the    priesthood  (in  narrative 

form). 
11-16.     Laws  relating  to  Purification  and  Atonement. 
17-26.     The  Law  of  Holiness  (H). 
27.     Regulations  for  vows,  etc. 

Legal  sections  in  Numbers 

Num.  1 :  47-54  +  chaps.  3-4.     The  status  of  the  Levites,  etc. 
5-6.     Exclusion  of  the  leprous  and  unclean,  etc. 
8  :  1-9  :  14.     Directions  for  lamps,  etc. 
15.     Sacrifices  to  accompany  burnt-offerings,  etc. 
18-19.     Duties  and  responsibihties  of  priests  and  Levites, 

etc. 
27:1-11.     Law  of  inheritance  of  daughters  (in  narrative 

form). 
28-29.     Prescribed  sacrifices  for  different  occasions. 
30-31.     The  law  of  vows,  etc. 
35-36.     Villages  for  the  Levites,  etc.^ 

2.  The  hook  of  Ruth,  c.  450  ?  (or  c.  430  ?)  B.C. 

3.  The  prophetic  message  of  Obadiah  =  Proud  and  secure  Edom 
to  be  destroyed.     450-400  (?)  b.c. 

4.  The  Prophetic  message  of  Isaiah,  chaps.  34-35  =  The  punish- 
ment of  Edom  and  Israel's  glorious  future,     c.  450-400  (?)  b.c. 

5.  The  Psalter,  Book  i.  Psalms  3-41  {^'Davidic'^),  c.  450- 
430(?)B.c. 

6.  Other  literature  assigned  to  this  period  by  different  authorities, 
a.  Malachi,'^  c.  445-c.  432  b.c.  Cf.  Driver,  Kirkpatrick,  etc. 
6.  Individual  psahns  which  may  belong  to  this  period. 

(a)  According  to  Briggs  the  follo^ving  16  psalms  belong  to  the 
middle  Persian  period  =  the  times  of  Nehemiah,  445-433  b.c, 
viz.  5;  8;  15;  26;  29-30;  40:1-11;  47;  51;  57:5,  7-11 
(  =  108  : 1-5) ;  65 ;  66  : 1  f .,  6-76,  8  f . ;  69  :  7-12,  196-25,  27  f . ; 
138;    139:7-12;    141. ^ 

(6)  According  to  Kirkpatrick  the  following  psalms  belong  with 
probabiHty  to  the  time  of  Ezra-Nehemiah,  458-433  (432)  b.c. 
=  Pss.  122-134  (122  //  Neh.  11 : 1  ff. ;  123,  445  b.c.  ;  124  //  Neh. 

1  Some  sections  of  the  legal  material  (P)  in  narrative  form  given  above, 
as  well  as  other  portions  not  included  in  this  outline,  are  found  also  in  the 
literature  assigned  to  the  early  periods  of  Israel's  history,  espec.  the  period 
of  the  Exodus  and  Desert  wanderings,  pp.  33^1. 

2  For  the  chron.  setting  of  Malachi  given  in  this  vol.  see  p.  255,  ii.  1, 

3  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxxix  ff. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       265 

4  : 7  ff. ;  125  //  Neh.  6  ;  126  ;  127-128,  cf.  Neh.  7  :  3  ff. ;  129  //  Ps. 
124;  130-131,  cf.  Neh.  1:4  ff.,  9 :  1  ff. ;  132;  133,  cf.  Neh.  11: 
1  ff.;  134  //  Neh.  12:44).  Also  the  following  psalms:  118  // 
Neh.  8;  145-150  //Neh.  12:27-43,  or  later;  105-106,  after 
537  B.C. ;  109,  post-exilic  ;  111-112,  post-exilic  ;  135,  an  expansion 
of  134 ;  136,  resembles  135 ;  108  and  120,  possibly  post-exihc ; 
140-143,  probably  post-exilic ;   119,  possibly  c.  450  b.c.  or  later. 

c.  So7ig  of  Triumph,  Ex.  15 :  1-18.  c.  444  b.c.  =  Comill ; 
cf.  Kent.i 

d.  The  Song  of  Moses,  Deut.  32  :  1^3.  1st  half  of  Persian  period 
=  Kent.2 

e.  The  Song  of  Hannah,  1  Sam.  2  :  1-10.  Perhaps  the  middle  of 
the  Persian  period  =  Kent.^ 

7.  The  Memoirs  of  Ezra  (E)  =  Ezra  7:27-8:34;  9:1-15; 
(10).     458  ff.  B.C.  (?). 

8.  The  Aramaic  sections,  in  their  original  form,  in  Ezra  4 :  7- 
6:18;   (7:12-26).     c.  450  b.c. 

9.  The  Memoirs  of  Nehemiah  (N)  =  Neh.  1:1-7:5;  (7:6- 
73a) ;    11-13  (in  part).     445  ff.  B.C. 

10.  The  combination  of  JED  and  P  is  dated  with  a  good  deal  of 
probability  by  many  scholars  444-c.  400  b.c.  This  is  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  Law  read  by  Ezra  in  444  B.C.  (Neh.  8 ;  cf . 
pp.  244  f.)  was  P  alone.  The  resultant  product  =  the  Pentateuch 
=  JEDP  =  The  First  Canon,  i.e,  the  Canon  of  the  Law. 

11.  To  this  same  period,  c.  400  b.c,  may  also  belong  the  final 
revision  of  all  the  historical  material  from  Genesis  to  2  Ki.  25 
{i.e.  the  first  division  of  history,  cf.  p.  1)  by  R  (or  R^). 

12.  Jer.  17 :  19-27  ( =  exhortation  to  hallow  the  Sabbath)  is 
placed  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (cf.  Neh.  13 :  15  ff.)  by  many 
scholars.^ 

13.  Note  that  Jonah  is  also  assigned  to  the  5th  cen.  b.c.  by  a 
number  of  scholars,  e.g.  Driver,  Hunter,  Ryle,  Kautzsch,  etc.^ 
Cf.  its  chronological  setting  in  this  vol.,  pp.  302  f.,  iii.  5. 

1  Cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  119,  540.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  51  f.  ( =  in  its 
present  form  its  date  is  the  early  part  or  middle  of  the  Persian  period; 
vs.  16  =  from  the  days  of  the  Exodus),  For  its  chron.  setting  in  this 
vol.  cf.  p.  83,  v.  b. ;  see  also  pp.  35  f.,  ii.  b. 

2  Cf .  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  261.  For  its  chron.  setting  in  this  vol.  cf .  p.  193, 
ii.  3.  b. 

3  Cf.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  177  f.    See  this  vol.  p.  54,  ii.  e. 
*  On  Jer.  17 :  19-27,  cf.  p.  159,  v.  m. 

5  Cf .  LOT,  322 ;  Hunter,  After  Exile,  ii.  pp.  42  f .,  51  fif.  =  c.  458  b.c.  ; 
Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  116  =  close  of  5th  cen.  b.c;  Kautzsch,  LOT,  134  f. 
=  c.  400-350  B.C.  Cf.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  xvi,  90  f.,  218  ( =  not 
long  after  Ezra-Neh.). 


266      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

V.  Composition  of  the  literary  productions  and  chronological  notes, 
445-433  B.C. 

a.  In  addition  (a)  to  the  Law  of  Holiness  H  or  P^  =  Lev.  17-26 
(cf.  pp.  184  ff),  which  is  commonly  recognized  as  a  distinct  part  of 
P,  many  modern  scholars  maintain  that  other  separate  codes  or 
strata  can  be  determined ;  such  as  :  (5)  the  "Priestly  Teaching/' 
introduced  so  frequently  by  the  formula :  ''This  is  the  law  (lit. 
'teaching')  of,  etc."  (cf.  especially  in  Lev.  1-3;  5-7;  11-15  and 
Num.  5;  6;  15;  19:  14-22).  This  is  designated  by  the  symbol 
(P*).  While  its  date  of  compilation  probably  was  the  Exile,  it 
doubtless  as  H  represents  in  the  main  pre-exilic  usage  (especially 
after  Josiah's  reformation,  621  b.c,  cf.  HDB,  iii.  1086,  Harforcl- 
Battersby).  (c)  The  main  body  of  Priestly  law  (after  separating 
H  and  P^),  which  is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  it  is  represented 
as  being  revealed  to  Moses  on  Sinai,  is  denoted  by  the  symbol, 
P  or  P^.  This  section  of  P  is  placed  by  a  number  of  scholars  after 
the  Restoration  (537  b.c.)  =  c.  500  b.c.  And  (d)  later  supple- 
ments to  the  Law  are  indicated  by  the  symbol  (P).  The  follow- 
ing are  the  principal  sections  so  regarded  =  Ex.  30:1-31:11; 
35-40(?);  Lev.  2:4-16(?);  4;  8;  14:86-53;  27;  Num.  l-4(?); 
8 ;  27  : 1-11  (?) ;  28-31 ;  35-36.  The  unity  of  P  is  thus  "one  of 
spirit  only,"  not  a  Hterary  one.     Cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  93. 

b.  Among  scholars  who  distinguish  different  strata  in  P,  it  is 
held  that  the  main  body  of  the  Priestly  law  (P  or  P^)  is  resumed 
in  Lev.  9  (or  chap.  8  according  to  some  authorities),  from  Ex. 
29. 

c.  Isaiah  35  is  generally  allowed  to  be  the  continuation  of  chap. 
34,  —  the  marked  contrast  between  the  contents  being  taken  as 
a  part  of  the  author's  design  (cf.  e.g.  Skinner  in  loc).  But  accord- 
ing to  McCurdy  these  chapters  have  nothing  to  do  with  each 
other.  He  thinks,  while  it  is  uncertain  whether  chap.  34  is  exilic, 
the  resemblances  of  chap.  35  to  Isa.  40  ff.  suggest  a  date  at  the 
close  of  the  Exile.^ 

d.  Many  of  the  psalms  are  considered  by  modern  scholars  to 
have  been  re-edited  or  expanded  by  later  writers.  For  the  possi- 
bihty  of  such  additions,  see  especially  Briggs,  Psal.  No  attempt 
is  made  in  this  volume  to  note  the  times  and  occasions  which 
different  representative  scholars  have  considered  probable  for  the 
various  psalms  in  the  several  collections.  For  such  details,  cf. 
Comms.2  The  reader  is  again  reminded  that  the  above  tentative 
date  refers  to  the  time  when  book  i  as  a  whole  was  compiled. 

1  Cf.  McCurdy,  HPM,  iii.  p.  418,  n.  3  (§  1404).  See  also  exilic  setting, 
p.  196,  ii.  4.  c. 

2  Note,  however,  the  statement  on  p.  131,  last  paragraph. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       267 

The  collection  probably  contains  psalms,  or  at  least  fragments  of 
psalms,  of  an  earlier  period.^ 

e.  The  following  psalms  in  which  Jehovah  is  represented  as  a 
host  are  classified  as  "Guest  psalms"  by  some  scholars  {e.g. 
Cheyne)  =5  (cf.  vs.  46);  15;  24:1-6;  27:1-6;  23.  Cf.  also 
61:5;  31:19;  36  :  7  ff. ;  65  :  4.^ 

/.  The  following  psalms  have  been  classified  from  earhest  times 
in  the  Christian  church  as  'Penitential  "  =  6  ;  32  ;  38  ;  51 ;  102  ; 
130;   143. 

g.  The  following  are  the  "Nature  psalms"  =8;  19:  1-7;  29; 
93;   104;   107;   145-147. 

h.  The  following  psalms  in  Hebrew  are  alphabetical  or  acrostic 
=  9-10  (in  part) ;  25;  34;  37;   111;   112;   119  and  145. 

i.  Ps.  14  =  53  (Elohistic).  Ps.  18=2  Sam.  22  [cf.  p.  80,  iii.  /.  (a)]. 
Ps.  40:13-17  =  Ps.  70  (Elohistic). 

j.  As  chief  evidence  bearing  on  the  date  of  the  practical  comple- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch,  c.  400  b.c,  is  the  essential  identification  of 
the  Jewish  and  Samaritan  Pentateuchs.  It  is  believed  that  the 
Samaritans  withdrew  from  the  Jewish  community  in  the  genera- 
tion following  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  i.e.  subsequent  to  432  b.c, 
and  that  the  Pentateuch  which  they  took  with  them,  and  alone 
held  as  sacred,  had  attained  that  form  at  the  time  of  this  separa- 
tion.^ On  the  assumption  of  this  date,  c.  400  b.c,  there  is  also 
the  possibihty  of  various  modifications  of  the  laws  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, or  additions  to  them  being  made  subsequently  —  according 
to  some  scholars  dowTi  to  the  3rd  cen.,  or  even  later,  b.c  [cf.  p. 
248 ;  also  n.  a.  (d),  above]. 

k.  The  additions  to  the  historical  books,  Josh.-Ki.  (cf.  above,  iv. 
11),  c.  400  B.C.,  consist  mostly  of  inserted  verses,  though  occasionally 
longer  sections  are  introduced.  The  following  in  part  =  the  list 
of  such  insertions  (based  essentially  on  Kautzsch's  outline).  In 
Josh.,  3  :  4a ;  5:4-7;  9  :  23,  27  (in  part) ;  17  :  16-2,  5(  ?)  6  ;  20  : 
4-6;  21:115-13a;  22:7-8.  In  Judges,  1:1a,  4,  8  f.,  18;  2: 
16-5a,  13,  17 ;  3  :  1-3,  11,31;  6  :  7-10 ;  11 :  29 ;  13  :  4,  5a,  76,  136, 
14a;  and  the  recasting  of  chaps.  20-21. "*  The  insertions  are  less 
in  Samuel,  cf .  1  Sam.  6  :  15,  17,  18a  ;  16  :  1-13,  etc.  (pp.  54,  ii.  d. ; 
74,  iii.  c. ;  78,  iii.  6.).     In  Kings,  cf.  1  Ki.  8  :  46,  5,  etc.     12  :  21-24, 

^  See  also  the  statement  p.  228. 

2  Cf.  Cheyne,  Origin  Psal,  pp.  236  f.,  387  ff.,  429  f.,  n.  «. 

3  While  the  above  represents  the  prevailing  view  of  the  time  the  Samari- 
tans received  the  Pent,  some  assign  a  later  date.  Cf .  "the  evidence  points 
to  a  date  about  a  century  later"  =  Skinner,  Divine  Names,  etc.,  118  ff. 
See  EBi,  iv.  5015  f.  (Burkitt). 

*  For  a  somewhat  different  classification  of  the  R^  additions  in  Josh, 
and  Judg.,  given  in  this  vol.  see  pp.  42,  iii.  d. ;  51,  iii.  c. ;  52,  ii.  a. 


268      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

32  ff.,  etc.  [pp.  82,  iii.  e. ;  134,  iii.  c. ;  138,  iii.gr.;  (140,  iii.  6. ;  155  f., 
ii.  h. ;  166,  iii.  a.)].^ 

I.  It  is  the  view  generally  held  by  scholars  that  the  separation  of 
Joshua  from  the  previous  part  of  the  Hexateuch  (since  it  related 
to  matters  after  the  death  of  Moses,  and  hence  was  not  a  part  of 
the  Law)  took  place  after  the  combination  of  JED  and  P.  Cf. 
variant  view  of  Joshua,  p.  25. 

SECTION  V,  c.  430-c.  350  B.C. 

i.  The  period,  c.  430-c.  350  b.c.  No  Biblical  historical  records 
(cf.  below,  iii.  5). 

ii.   Literary  productions,  c.  400-c.  350  (?)  b.c. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Joel,  400-360  (?)  b.c. 

Chap.  1.     The  destructive  ravages  of  locusts  described,  etc. 

2:1-17.     An  exhortation  to   proclaim  ''the  day  of  Je- 
hovah," etc. 

2  :  18-32.     Jehovah's  favorable  answer,  etc. 

3.     Jehovah's  judgment  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  etc. 

iii.  Composition  of  the  literary  productions  and  chronological 
notes,  c.  400-350  (?)  b.c. 

a.  The  unity  of  Joel  has  been  generally  accepted,  though  its 
composite  character  has  been  maintained  at  different  times. 
Bewer  recently  in  his  commentary  strongly  holds  the  latter  view. 
He  considers  its  composition  to  be  as  follows :  (a)  chaps.  1 : 1- 
2 :  27  =  the  plague  of  locusts  and  drought  in  which  the  following 
harmonistic  vss.  relating  to  the  day  of  Jehovah  are  found,  espe- 
cially, 1 :  15;  2: 16-2,  10-11.  This  section  is  the  work  of  Joel 
c.  400  B.C. ;  (b)  chaps.  2  :  28-3  :  21  (in  the  main)  =  the  day  of  Jeho- 
vah, in  which  the  following  vss.  by  Joel  are  embedded,  2  :  28-31a ; 
3  :  2a,  9-14a.  This  section  dates  a  few  decades  later  than  (a) ; 
and  (c)  3  :  4-8  is  a  still  later  part,  c.  350  b.c.^ 

6.  The  period  430-350  b.c.  The  events  chronicled  in  the  last 
chapter  of  Nehemiah  (13  :  4  ff.)  are  connected  with  his  second  visit 
to  Jerusalem  c.  432  b.c.  The  history  of  the  Jews  for  the  remainder 
of  the  Persian  period  (till  332  b.c.)  is  known  only  indirectly  from 
allusions  in  historical  writings  outside  of  the  O.  Test.,  and  from 
inferences  from  the  Bibhcal  Hterature,  which  may  be  assigned 
with  more  or  less  probability  to  those  years.  It  seems  a  reason- 
able conclusion,  from  all  that  can  be  gleaned,  that  the  years 
following  the  adoption  of  the  Law,  c.  444  b.c,  and  the  different 

1  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  233  ff. 

2  Cf.  Bewer,  Joel,  49  ff.,  59  ff. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       269 

reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  were  marked  for  some  time  by  a 
fair  degree  of  prosperity  and  contentment.  If  the  lists  given  in 
Ezra  2  (cf.  Neh.  7 : 6  ff.)  represent  summaries  of  returned  Exiles, 
as  some  authorities  maintain,  at  different  times  during  practically 
the  whole  Persian  period  (cf.  p.  254,  iv.  6.),  and  the  ''Ezra"  and 
^'Nehemiah,"  which  appear  in  the  Hsts  (cf.  Ezra  2:2;  Neh.  7  :  7, 
Azariah  =  Ezra?)  are  the  well-known  Bibhcal  characters,  then 
their  relative  place  in  these  registers  suggests  how  large  a  propor- 
tion of  the  number  recorded  returned  to  Jerusalem  subsequent  to 
their  date.  It  is  inferred  also  that  the  Jewish  territory  was  ex- 
tended in  the  period  introduced  by  Ezra-Nehemiah.  Thus  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Maccabean  period.  Bethel,  Beth-horon,  etc.,  were 
Judean,  not  Samaritan,  cities  (cf.  Jos.  Ant.  xiii.  1,  §  3  ;  1  Mace.  9  : 
50) .  This  expansion  was  perhaps  due  to  the  number  of  returned 
Exiles.  In  harmony  with  this  inference  are  the  places  associated 
with  some  of  the  names  in  the  Hsts,  e.g.  Geba,  Michmash,  Bethel, 
Kirjath-jearim,  etc.  (cf.  Ezra  2 :  25  ff.  //  Neh.  7  :  29  ff.),  situated 
in  the  southern  territory  of  Samaria,  which,  it  is  maintained,  was 
not  held  by  the  Jews  in  444  b.c.  (cf.  Neh.  3).  The  possibility  of 
such  expansion  northward  during  these  years  was  due  to  the  weak 
central  government  of  Persia  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II,  404- 
358  B.C.  Cf.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  224  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist. 
362  ff.,  380  f.,  395  ff.  HDB,  ii.  5156  (Barnes).  EBi,  ii.  2258  f. 
(Guthe),  etc. 


SECTION  VI,  c.  350-332  B.C. 

i.    The  period,  c.  350-332  b.c.     No  Bibhcal  historical  records; 
cf .  below,  iv.  a. ;  pp.  273  f . 

ii.  Literary  productions  originating  or  compiled,  c.  350-332  b.c. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Isaiah,  chaps.  24-27.     c.   340-332  (?) 

B.C. 

Chap.  24.     Announcement   of  Jehovah's   judgment   upon   the 

earth,  etc. 
25.     Jehovah  praised  for  His  deUverance,  etc. 
26  :  1-19.     Further  praise  to  Jehovah  for  protection,  etc. 
26  :  20-27  :  13.     Exhortation  to  Jehovah's  people  to  hide 

themselves,  etc. 

2.  The  Psalter.     Books  ii-iii,  in  part  (Pss.  42-83).     c.  430- 
330  (?)  B.C. 

a.  Davidic  collection.     Pss.  51-72. 

h.  The  two-fold  Levitical  collections;  Korahite  (Pss.  42-49),  and 
Asaphic  (Pss.  50  +  73-83). 


270      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

3.  The  Book  of  Job.    c.  350  (?)  b.c. 

Chaps.  1-2.     The  prologue,  —  Job's  dire  calamities,  etc. 

3-31.     Discussion  between  Job  and  his  Three  Friends  of 
the  problem  of  suffering  as  related  to  sin. 
3.     Job's  outburst  of  grief,  etc. 
4-14.       The  first  cycle  of  speeches. 
15-21.     The  second  cycle  of  speeches. 
22-28.     The  third  cycle  of  speeches. 
29-31.     Further  discourses  of  Job. 
(32-37..     The  EHhu  speeches.) 
38 : 1-42 : 6.     The    speeches    of    Jehovah    and    Job's 

submission. 
42 : 7-17.     The  epilogue  =  restoration  of  Job's  pros- 
perity. 

4.  The  following  are  some  of  the  literary  products,  which  are  also 
asdgned  to  the  period  c.  350-332  b.c.  by  different  scholars. 

a.  Isa.  63 : 7-64 :  12,  possibly  earher  than  Isa.  24-27  ( =  c. 
346  B.c.).i     See  p.  260,  v.  a. 

b.  Pss.  74,  79,  and  44 ;  and  possibly  83  and  89.^ 

c.  Prov.  1-9,  according  to  some  scholars,  as  well  as  the  final 
redaction  and  combination  of  the  other  collections  of  the  book 
=  c.  350  B.C.3 

d.  ''The  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel"  (''Israel  and 
Judah"),  —  not  the  canonical  books  of  Kings,  —  which  was  one  of 
the  sources  of  the  books  of  Chronicles,  is  assigned  by  some 
scholars  to  the  close  of  the  Persian  period  or  later.^ 

e.  Insertions  in  the  Prophetical  literature,  possibly  in  the  Per- 
sian period.^ 

/.  According  to  Briggs  the  following  11  psalms  belong  to  the  trou- 
blous times  of  the  late  Persian  period  =  27  :  7-9,  1 1  f . ;  36  :  5-9 ; 
44;   48;   49;   50;   68;   81:1-56;  85;  89:1  f.,  5-14;  102:  1-11.« 
g.  Habak.  3  =  Persian  period  according  to  some  scholars.^ 
h.  Lam.  3,  regarded  by  many  scholars  as  post-exilic  in  origin, 
according  to  Kent  =  last  half  of  Persian  or  first  of  Greek  period.^ 

1  Cf.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  in  loc.     Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  309  ff.,  etc. 

2  Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church 2,  207  f.,  438.  Cf.  Pss.  74,  79,  89 
(Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  223 ;  his  Introd.  Isa.  360  ff.  Kent,  Jew.  People, 
235  f.). 

3  Cf.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  153,  199.  For  the  chron.  setting  of  these  chaps. 
in  this  vol.  cf.  p.  310,  iii.  9.  a. 

4  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2084  (Moore).    See  also  this  vol.  pp.  65  f. 

5  Cf.  lists,  pp.  306-308. 

6  Cf.  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  Ixxxix  ff. 

'  Cf.  Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.  156  f.,  n.  r.  Moore,  LOT,  204.  See  note 
p.  162,  iii.  g.  of  this  vol. 

8  Cf.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  20  f.  Cheyne's  dating  for  the  different  Lam. 
poems  may  be  noted :  chaps.  2  and  4  =  latter  part  of  Persian  period ; 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       271 

iii.   Composition  of  the  literary  productions,    c.  350-332  b.c. 

a.  In  Isa.  24-27,  the  lyrical  passages  25  :  1-5,  9-12  ;  26  : 1-19  ; 
27  :  2-6  (cf.  also  the  obscure  section  27  :  7-11)  are  thought  by  some 
scholars  to  have  been  inserted  a  few  years  later  into  the  original 
prophecy,  though  possibly  by  the  same  author.  Some  of  the 
reasons  given  for  this  view  are  :  (a)  the  remaining  sections  form 
a  unity  and  up  to  27 :  1  at  least  give  a  consistent  picture  of  the 
future ;  and  (h)  26 :  1-19  is  written  in  a  tone  of  mingled  exulta- 
tion and  sadness  inappropriate  to  the  supposed  situation.  Cf. 
further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

b.  Note  the  fact  that  in  the  Pss.  42-83  the  divine  name  Elohim 
(=  God)  predominates  over  that  of  Jehovah;   cf.  pp.  225  f.  (d). 

c.  Ps.  53  =  Ps.  14  (Jehovistic).  57  :  7-11  =  Ps.  108  : 1-5.  60  : 
5-12  =  108  :  6-13.     70  =  40  :  13-17  (Jehovistic). 

d.  Ps.  72 :  20,  the  subscription,  was  probably  added  by  the 
Elohistic  compiler.     See  pp.  227  f. 

e.  Pss.  77,  78,  80  and  81  are  termed  by  some  scholars  "Joseph 
psalms"  on  account  of  the  employment  of  the  name  "Joseph" 
in  them.     E.g.  Cheyne. 

/.  A  number  of  recent  scholars  maintain  that  the  present  book 
of  Job  is  a  revised  and  expanded  edition  of  an  earlier  (prose) 
production.  This  original  work  has  been  partially  preserved  in 
the  prologue  (chaps.  1-2)  and  the  epilogue  (42 : 7-17)  of  the 
present  book,  being  borrowed  by  the  author,  who  wrote  chaps.  3  : 
1-42  :  6.  For  a  suggested  plot  of  the  original  line  of  argument  of 
the  speakers,  see  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  160  f.  This  view  is 
held  by  Cheyne,  Duhm,  Cornill,  Schmidt,  Gordon,  Strahan,  etc.^^ 

g.  The  section,  Job  27 :  7-23,  which  apparently  is  a  part  of 
Job's  speech,  presents  difficulties  which  are  recognized  by  all 
scholars.  The  statements  (and  point  of  view)  of  Job  therein 
are  inconsistent  with  those  held  by  him  up  to  this  point  (cf. 
especially  27  :  9  with  9  :  15  f. ;  13  :  24 ;  19  :  7  ;  23  :  8  f . ;  cf.  also 
27  :  1 1-23  which  is  the  opposite  of  his  statements  in  9  :  22-24  and 
in  chaps.  21  and  24).  On  the  other  hand  the  line  of  argument  is 
parallel  to  that  of  the  Friends,  especially  Zophar  (see  chap.  20; 
cf.  e.g.  27  :  13  with  20 :  29).     There  seems  no  connection  between 

chap.  5  =  age  of  Nehemiah,  or  later ;  chap.  1  =  after  the  Exile ;  chap. 
3  =  pre-Macc.  portion  of  the  Greek  age.  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  2700  ff.  (Cheyne) ; 
Founders,  etc.,  356  ff.  See  also  HDB,  iii.  23  (Selbie),  where  the  possi- 
bility of  a  post-exilic  dating  for  Lam.  is  conceded. 

1  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2467  f.  (Cheyne) ;  iii.  3801  (Duhm).  Cornill,  Introd. 
434  ff.  Schmidt,  Poets,  80  ff.,  97  ff.,  110  ff.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  204  ff. 
Strahan,  Job  23  f.  See  also  discussion  in  Peake,  Job  32  f.,  344  f.  Gray, 
Introd.  115  ff. 

2  For  different  dates  suggested  for  the  original  book  of  Job,  cf.  p.  166, 
ii.  I.  and  p.  256,  ii.  2.  c. 


272     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

27  : 1-6  and  27  :  7  ff.  Among  the  different  attempts  to  solve  the 
problem  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  (a)  Job  here  modifies 
his  former  extreme  charges,  by  affirming  what  is  the  general  rule 
in  reference  to  the  fate  of  the  wicked.  To  this  the  objection  is 
made  that  this  is  not  in  agreement  with  27  :  1-6  nor  with  chap.  28 
which  follows;  (b)  Ewald's  solution,  viz.  that  Job  has  by  this 
time  conquered  his  doubts  regarding  the  divine  order  of  govern- 
ment, and  anticipates  some  such  issue  as  in  the  epilogue  (42  :  7  ff.). 
This,  however,  is  inconsistent  with  Job's  position  later  {e.g. 
chap.  30),  and  does  not  harmonize  with  Jehovah's  speech 
(chaps.  38  ff.) ;  and  (c)  that  it  is  in  whole  or  in  part  a  misplaced 
speech  of  Zophar.  Note  the  fact  that  he  does  not  appear  in  the 
third  cycle  of  speeches.^  Cf.  for  further  discussion,  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  The  place  of  Job  28  in  the  argument  of  the  poem  is  by  no 
means  clear.  The  following  explanations  may  be  mentioned : 
(a)  Job,  having  failed  to  solve  his  difficulties  intellectually,  is 
forced  in  despair  to  explain  his  inability,  on  the  ground  that 
divine  Wisdom  is  beyond  human  grasp  {e.g.  Budde) ;  (6)  that  the 
chap,  expresses  a  temporary  spirit  of  calmness  and  of  resignation 
to  the  wisdom  of  God's  ways,  which  cannot  be  solved  {e.g.  Driver, 
Gibson) ;  and  (c)  the  opinion  that  this  chap,  is  a  later  addition,  per- 
haps an  independent  poem  inserted  here  to  preserve  it.  This 
last  view  is  held  by  many  scholars  to-day,  especially  on  the  ground 
that  the  message  of  the  chap.  (viz.  that  while  the  divine  Wisdom 
is  inscrutable  to  man,  man's  wisdom  is  to  trust  God),  while  in 
harmony  with  the  teaching  of  the  0.  Test.,  is  inconsistent  with 
Job's  previous  position  and  his  subsequent  attitude  in  chaps.  30-31. 
Furthermore,  it  is  claimed  that  if  chap.  28  is  Job's  conclusion, 
then  chaps.  38-42  are  unnecessary,  and  the  lament  of  Job  in 
chap.  31  is  difficult  to  account  for.  The  connection  of  this  chap- 
ter in  the  poem  as  explained  by  different  authorities,  who  accept  it 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  book,  seems  '^ forced"  and  "  unnatural.'* 
Moreover,  the  style,  which  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  book,  it  is 
maintained,  favors  a  different  author.  Cf .  further  on  this  question 
and  the  relative  date  of  this  chap,  and  Prov.  8  ( =  also  a  descrip- 
tion of  divine  Wisdom),  Introds.  and  Comms.  on  these  chaps. 

1  Among  those  holding  the  Zophar  view  of  chap.  27  there  is  some 
variation  in  opinion  regarding  the  vss.  to  be  assigned  to  him.  This 
question  is  connected  with  the  problem  of  rearranging  the  sections  which 
belong  to  the  different  characters  in  chaps.  25-31.  The  following  is 
Peake's  arrangement  of  these  chaps :  Bildad  =  25 :  1-3  (vss.  4-6  =  a 
gloss)  +  26 :  5-14 ;  Job  =  26  :  1-4  +  27  :  1-6,  11  f. ;  also  chaps.  29-31 ; 
Zophar  =  27 :  7-10  (or  8-10  =  a  gloss),  13-23.  See  further  Peake  and 
other  Comms.  in  loc. ;  also  Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol.  38  f.  Gordon,  Poets, 
etc.,  211  f. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   PERSIAN   PERIOD       273 

i.  The  Elihu  speeches,  Job  32-37,  though  defended  by  some 
distinguished  scholars  (e.g.  Budde,  Cornill,  etc.),  are  generally- 
regarded  as  a  later  supplement  to  the  book.  The  following  are  the 
main  reasons  for  this  conclusion :  (a)  Elihu  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  prologue,  nor  especially  in  the  epilogue,  where  a  verdict 
upon  him  along  with  the  other  characters  of  the  poem  would  natu- 
rally be  included  ;  (b)  this  section  interrupts  the  natural  order  of 
the  poem,  as  the  opening  verses  of  chap.  38  refer  to  Job  (vs.  2 
almost  implying  that  he  is  speaking  when  Jehovah  begins),  and  it 
weakens  the  force  of  Jehovah's  reply,  which  in  part  is  anticipated 
in  chaps.  36  f.,  i.e.  chap.  38  is  more  forceful  if  it  follows  immediately 
chap.  31 ;  (c)  practically  Elihu  traverses  the  same  ground  as  the 
Three  Friends  do,  especially  Eliphaz  (cf .  33  :  14-30 ;  36  :  8-25  \vith 
5:8  If.,  17  ff.  =  the  disciplinary  character  of  sufferings):^  and 
{d)  the  literary  characteristics  of  this  section  are  inferior  to  the 
rest  of  the  poem.  ''  It  is  prohx,  labored  and  sometimes  t autologous 
(32  :  6  end,  106,  176),"  with  more  Aramaic  influence.  According 
to  Driver,  ''though  not  part  of  the  original  plan  of  the  book,  they 
(i.e.  the  EHhu  chaps.)  are  a  valuable  supplement  to  it;  they 
attach  prominence  to  real  and  important  truths  which  in  the  rest 
of  the  poem  might  seem  not  to  have  received  their  proper  due." 
Cf.  further,  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  213 
ff.     Schmidt,  Poets,  89  f. 

j.  The  authenticity  of  Job  38 :  1-42 : 6  has  been  questioned 
by  some  as  a  whole,  by  others  in  part.  Especially  is  the  long 
description  40 :  15-41 :  26  (34)  considered  by  many  an  interpo- 
lation, partly  (a)  on  the  ground  that  it  is  out  of  harmony  with  the 
idea  of  Jehovah's  second  speech  (40  :  6  ff.),  partly  (6)  owing  to  its 
poetical  inferiority  to  the  other  parts  of  chaps.  38-39.  Driver 
practically  rejects  40 :  15-24.  Cf.  further,  Introds.  and  Comms. 
in  loc. ;   also  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  215  ff .     Schmidt,  Poets,  90  ff . 

k.  For  other  vss.  and  sections  questioned  in  Job,  cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms. 

iv.    Chronological  notes. 

a.  The  period,  c.  350-332  B.C.  The  fortunes  of  the  Jews  during 
the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  III  (Ochus),  358-337  b.c,  is  a  subject  of 
some  uncertainty.  It  is  known  that  during  this  time  there  was  a 
fierce  conflict  between  Persia  and  Egypt,  in  which  the  smaller 

1  This  contention,  however,  is  challenged  by  many  scholars.  It  is 
maintained,  "that,  if  true,  it  would  cut  both  ways,  for  it  would  remove 
all  motive  for  the  interpolation ;  whereas  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that 
these  chaps,  were  inserted  at  a  later  date  unless  some  definite  reason  for 
this  insertion  can  be  found."  Cf.  the  disciplinary  end  served  by  sufifer- 
ing  emphasized  in  this  section.  See  Gibson,  Job,  xxvi  f.  Strahan,  Job, 
24  f. 


274     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

Western  powers  were  involved.  The  arms  of  Egypt  being  at 
first  victorious  (c.  350  B.C.)  encouraged  rebellion  in  other  centres ; 
e.g.  Sidon,  which  after  maintaining  its  independence  was  at  length 
destroyed  in  346  B.C.  The  conquest  of  Egypt  was  completed  by 
343  B.C.  It  is  the  opinion  of  a  number  of  scholars  at  the  present 
time  that  the  Jews  were  implicated  in  these  conflicts  and  that 
they  suffered  greatly  from  the  vengeance  of  Ochus  in  consequence. 
This  conclusion  is  based  not  simply  on  the  probability  of  a  grow- 
ing community,  which  had  its  centre  in  Jerusalem,  being  unable 
to  escape  the  poHtical  compHcations  and  consequences  of  those 
years,  but  as  well  upon  references,  in  non-Jewish  histories,  to  a 
capture  of  Jericho  and  a  transportation  of  Jews  to  Hyrcania  on 
the  south  of  the  Caspian  sea  (cf.  SoUinus,  xxxv,  6.  Syncellus, 
i.  486).  As  Josephus  is  not  always  correct  in  his  chronological 
setting  of  events,  the  view  has  much  to  commend  it  that  his 
account  of  the  enslaving  of  Jews  and  the  defilement  of  the  Temple 
by  Bagoses  (Bagoas)  [whom  he  represents  as  general  of  another 
Artaxerxes,  II  (?)  (cf.  Ant.  xi.,  7,  §  1)]  refers  to  the  disasters  which 
probably  befell  the  Jewish  community  under  Ochus.  Cf.  further 
Kent,  Jew.  People,  229  ff .  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  410  ff.  HDB, 
ii.  5156  (Barnes).     EBi,  ii.  2259  (Guthe),  etc. 


X.  A.   The  Grecian  Period.     Introductory  and  Explana- 
tory Notes  to  the  Literature  of  this  Period 

The  literature  belonging  to  the  Grecian  period  is  found  in 
the  prophetical  writings  Zechariah,  chaps.  9-14  and  Jonah ; 
the  poetical  writings  of  Song  of  Solomon  ;  Proverbs,  chaps.  1- 
9 ;  30-31  (and  the  compilation  of  the  book) ;  psalms  and  com- 
pilation of  Psalms ;  and  miscellaneous  productions  =  Esther, 
Ecclesiastes  and  Daniel.  The  most  of  these  literary  com- 
positions had  their  origin  in  this  period.  Cf.,  however,  on 
Prov.  pp.  118  ff.,  313,  V.  s.v,  and  Psahns,  pp.  130  f.,  228,  233  f .^  ^ 

It  ^vill  be  noticed  in  the  above  list  that  there  are  no  historical 
writings  relating  to  this  period.  This  deficiency  has  to  be  supplied 
(so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  remedy  it)  partly  from  historical  writings 
outside  the  O.  Test.,  and  partly  from  inferences  from  the  Biblical 
writings  given  above.  Cf .  also  the  outline  of  events  given  in  the 
apocalyptic  description  in  Dan.  11  (see  pp.  320  f.,  v.  g.). 

1.   Prophetical  Writings 

A,  Zechariah,  chaps.  9-14.  These  chapters  are  now 
generally  regarded  by  scholars  as  belonging  to  a  different 
date  and  author  from  those  of  Zechariah  1-8.  If  these 
chapters  existed  detached  from  the  previous  part  of  the 
prophecy,  as  a  separate  book,  there  would  be  no  thought  of 
attributing  them  to  the  author  of  that  portion.^ 

This  conclusion  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  an  entirely 
different  background  is  reflected  in  these  chapters  from  that 
of  the  first  part  of  the  prophecy :  e.g.  (a)  no  mention  is 
made  of  the  Temple,  or  but  shght  allusion  to  it ;  contrast 
chaps.  1-8  (e.g.  8:9);    (6)  there  is  no  certain  reference  to 

1  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes  belong  to  the  Wisdom  literature.  Cf.  p. 
235,  n.  1.  ,    ,  c 

2  For  other  literature  assigned  to  this  period  by  different  scholars,  cf. 
pp.  302  f.,  iii.  2.  6 ;  306  ff.,  iii.  7.  8 ;  318,  iii.  3 ;  322.  iii.  5.  6. 

3  Note  in  the  superscriptions  in  9 :  1  and  12  :  1  that  there  is  no  mention 
of  Zechariah.  Cf.  also  a  similar  heading  in  the  anonymous  prophecy  of 
Malachi  (1 :  1). 

275 


276      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

the  Persian  period  nor  reflection  of  it ;  (c)  the  nations  which 
are  named,  viz.  Damascus  and  Hadrach  (9:1),  Hamath 
(9 :  2),  Greece  (9 :  13),  Assyria  and  Egypt  (10 :  10),  had  no 
bearing  on  Jewish  history  between  520-516  b.c.  ;  (d)  with 
the  exception  of  9 :  10-12,  the  peaceful  outlook  of  chaps. 
1-8  has  been  changed  to  one  of  warlike  attitude  (cf.  9  :  1  ff., 
13  ff. ;  12:1  ff .,  etc.) ;  (e)  the  bitterness  of  feeUng  displayed 
towards  outside  nations  is  more  intense  than  in  any  other 
portion  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  but  few  exceptions 
(e.g.  9 :  1  ff.,  13  ff. ;  14 :  12  ff.,  etc.) ;  and  (/)  a  further  fact 
confirming  difference  of  authorship  is  the  absence  of  any 
name  and  of  precise  dating  as  found  in  chapters  1-8  (cf. 
1:1,7;  7:1). 

Cf.  also  the  marked  dissimilarity  of  style  between  the  two 
sections.  Chaps.  9-14  are  characterized  largely  by  parallelism  of 
clauses  (as  in  much  of  the  prophetic  writings),  and  poetic  imagery. 
These  features  are  almost  entirely  lacking  in  chaps.  1-8.  Note 
also  that  chaps.  1-8  are  largely  in  the  form  of  visions,  which  are 
absent  in  chaps.  9-14. 

In  reference  to  the  date  of  Zechariah  9-14  the  opinion  of 
scholars  has  differed  as  in  the  case  of  Joel,  some  favoring 
the  pre-exilic  period  and  others  the  post-exilic.  In  support 
of  the  former  position  the  following  reasons  are  urged : 
(a)  the  Northern  Kingdom  is  spoken  of  as  if  still  existing, 
between  which  and  Judah  friendly  relations  are  maintained 
(9  :  10,  13  ;  11 :  14) ;  (6)  Egypt  and  Assyria  are  mentioned 
as  contemporary  nations  whither  the  Israelites  will  be  sent 
into  captivity  (10:10  f.,  cf.  Hos.  7:11;  9:3;  11 :  5,  11 ; 
12:1);  (c)  the  reference  to  ^Heraphim"  and  ^^ diviners'' 
(10 :  1  f.)  imphes  pre-exilic  conditions,  as  in  post-exilic  times 
the  nation  was  not  idolatrous  (but  cf.  Mai.  3:5;  Job  31 :  26ff.) ; 
and  (d)  the  nations  mentioned  and  threatened  (9 :  1-7)  are 
those  which  are  also  included  in  Amos  (cf.  1 :  3-10). 

The  pre-exilic  date,  accordingly,  to  which  chaps  9-11  and 
13 :  7-9  are  commonly  assigned,  is  the  time  of  Amos  and 
Hosea,  i.e.  c.  760-735  b.c.  Chaps.  12-14  (less  13 :  7-9), 
on  the  basis  of  the  reference  in  12 :  11  to  mourning  for  king 
Josiah  (2  Ki.  23  :  29  ;  cf.  2  Chr.  35  :  24  f.),i  are  placed  in  the 

1  The  allusion  in  12:11,  however,  is  uncertain.  See  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  277 

last  years  of  the  Kingdom  {i.e.  the   reigns  of  Jehoiakim, 
Jehoiachin  or  Zedekiah ;  608-586  B.C.). 

The  description  in  11 :  4  ff .  is  thought  by  some  to  be  based  on  the 
circumstances  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  after  the  death  of  Jero- 
boam II  (c.  740  B.C.,  cf.  2  Ki.  15  :  8  if.,  13  ff.,  17  ff.).  The  allusion, 
however,  is  exceedingly  obscure. 

On  the  other  hand,  recent  scholarly  opinion  is  increasingly 
in  favor  of  a  post-exilic  date.  Some  of  the  more  important 
grounds  for  this  view  are  as  follows :  (a)  chaps.  9:11  f . 
and  10  :  6-9  apparently  presuppose  the  Captivity,  —  at 
least  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  722  B.C.  (cf.  ''cast  them 
off,"  10:6).  It  was  not  till  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem in  586  B.C.  that  a  part  of  the  Jews  went  into  Egypt ; 
(10:10,  cf.  Jer.  42-44).^  (h)  No  reference  is  made  to  a 
Davidic  king  in  Jerusalem  [the  Davidic  family  is  recog- 
nized as  on  the  same  level  as  the  other  noble  families  {e.g. 
12 :  7,  12  ff.)] ;  (c)  the  emphasis  which  is  placed  on  the 
Temple  services  in  the  Messianic  age  (cf.  chap.  14,  espe- 
cially vss.  16  ff.)  presupposes  the  influence  of  the  Temple  in 
post-exilic  times.  Cf.  also  the  prominence  of  the  priesthood 
(12:12  f.).  {d)  The  Greeks  are  mentioned  (9:13),  not 
as  the  remote  power  they  w^ere  in  the  eighth  century  b.c.  ; 
nor  as  in  the  time  of  Zech.  1-8 ;  nor  even  of  Joel  (3:6  =  a 
distant  nation  of  slave-buyers),  400-360  (?)  b.c,  but  as 
Israel's  most  formidable  antagonists.  This  was  a  condition 
realized  only  after  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
332  ff.  B.C.  {e)  The  mention  of  Hadrach,  Damascus, 
Hamath,  Phoenicia  and  Philistia  (9:1  ff.)  harmonizes  with 
the  historical  situation  during  the  period  of  conflict  between 
the  Seleucidae  of  Syria  (note  Hadrach  and  Damascus)  and 
the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt,  during  which  the  Jews  suffered 
greatly  (cf.  11 :  4-17 ?2).  (/)  Egypt  and  Assyria  (10  :  10  f.), 
it  is  claimed,  may  be  naturally  accounted  for  as  symbolically 
used  in  this  prophecy  —  of  an  apocalyptic  character  —  to 
denote  the  Ptolemies  and  Seleucidae ;   {g)  in  a  similar  way 

1  Cf.,  however,  the  view  that  there  were  Jews  not  unlikely  in  Egypt 
from  a  time  as  early  as  the  last  days  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  who  had 
taken  refuge  there  from  the  dangers  of  their  own  land.  See  Kent,  Jew. 
People,  20. 

2  For  the  conflict  between  the  Seleucidae  and  Ptolemies  and  its  bearing 
upon  the  fortunes  of  the  Jews,  cf.  pp.  300  f.,  ii.  b. 


278      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

^'Ephraim^'  and  ^'Israel"  (cf.  9 :  10,  13;  12: 1,  etc.)  signify 
Judah,  according  to  post-exilic  usage  (cf.  also  ''house  of 
Joseph"  10 : 6) ;  ^  and  (h)  the  character  of  this  prophecy  is 
unlike  the  pre-exilic  messages  of  Amos,  Hosea,  etc.  (i.e. 
practical  exhortations  and  predictions),  being  apocalyptic 
(i.e.  Zion  attacked  by  outside  nations,  which  in  turn  are 
visited  with  judgment  by  Jehovah),  a  type  first  introduced 
by  Ezekiel  (cf.  chaps.  38  f.)  and  found  in  other  late  proph- 
ecies ;  e.g.  Joel  3 ;  Isa.  24-27. 

*'We  stand  no  longer  upon  the  ground  of  prophecy  properly  so 
called,  but  of  anonymous,  eschatological  writing.  Certain  stere- 
otyped features  of  eschatology  recur.  The  writers  are  very 
strongly  influenced  by  ancient  prophecy ;  for  the  most  part  by  its 
religious  rather  than  by  its  ethical  contents,  etc."  ^ 

Cf .  also  the  dependence  of  Zech.  12:1  on  Isa.  42  :  5 ;  44  :  24 ; 
45  :  12,  18,  etc. 

Note  also  the  hostility  expressed  towards  prophecy  in  13 : 2  ff ., 
which  is  contrary  to  the  attitude  of  the  pre-exilic  prophets. 

While  the  post-exilic  period  seems  the  more  probable  time 
for  the  origin  of  this  prophecy,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
date  more  definitely  within  it.  On  the  whole,  however,  the 
years  of  conflict  between  the  Ptolemies  and  Seleucidae  in  the 
third  century  seem  the  most  probable  occasion.  Accord- 
ingly c.  300-250  B.C.  may  reasonably  be  assigned  tentatively 
as  its  date. 

Some  scholars  assign  this  section  of  prophecy  earlier  in  post- 
exilic  times ;  e.g.  Kirkpatrick  =  possibly  by  two  authors  (chaps. 
9-11  +  13  :  7-9  and  chaps.  12-14),  as  a  whole  60  or  70  years  after 
the  Return,  i.e.  c.  485  ff.  b.c.^ 

Scholars  differ  in  opinion  in  reference  to  the  unity  of  Zech. 
9-14.  "The  general  trend  of  scholarly  opinion  may  be  said  to 
be  in  favor  of  the  unity  of  the  section."  ^  ''The  chapters  are  so 
near  together  in  point  of  time  that  the  question  whether  they  are 
by  a  single  author  is  of  subordinate  importance."  ^ 

Kent  holds  to  the  unity  of  these  chaps.  He  thinks  they  reflect 
the  Maccabean  conflict,  their  date  being  c.  160  b.c.^ 

^  Driver  suggests  the  possibility  of  these  different  designations  being 
used  symbolically  for  the  Israelites  still  in  Exile.     LOT,  349. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  iv.  9696  f.  (Nowack). 

3  Cf.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  443  ff.,  451,  455.    See  p.  256,  ii.  2.  /. 
*  Cf.  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  326. 

6  Cf.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  423.  n.  2*  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  453  ff. 
6  Cf.  Kent,  Ibid.,  36  f.,  453  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  279 

For  some  of  the  recent  views  of  the  composite  character  of  this 
section  of  prophecy,  cf.  under  Bibhcal  material,  p.  303,  iv.  b.^ 

B.  The  Book  of  Jonah.  This  book  being  a  prophetic 
story  may  conveniently  be  grouped  with  the  prophetic  writ- 
ings of  this  period.  It  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  parable 
or  allegory,  designed  to  rebuke  the  narrow  and  hostile  atti- 
tude of  later  Judaism  towards  other  nations. 

"Whatever  view  one  takes  of  the  formal  character  and  origin 
of  the  book,  the  ideas  embodied  in  it  are  the  same,"  .  .  .  viz. 
"to  proclaim  the  universality  of  the  Divine  plan  of  salvation,  and 
to  serve  as  a  protest  against  the  particularist  tendencies  which 
now  and  then  led  many  members  of  the  people  of  Israel  to  strive 
to  narrow  the  boundaries  of  the  Divine  kingdom  of  grace.  The 
book  is  thus  a  brilliant  example  of  the  diametrical  opposite  spirit 
which  condemned  the  foreign  wives  (Mai.  2:  11 ;  Ezra  9:1  ff. ; 
10 : 1  ff. ;  Neh.  13  :  23  ff. ;  cf.  Esth.  9  :  13)."  ^ 

While  the  hero  of  the  story  lived  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam 
II  (cf.  2  Ki.  14 :  25),  781-740  b.c,  the  evidence  is  clear  that 
this  book  was  not  written  till  long  after  that  time.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  grounds  for  this  conclusion : 
(a)  the  language  and  style,  which  are  those  of  the  latest 
period  of  Old  Testament  Hebrew,  having  marked  affinities 
especially  with  Ezra-Nehemiah,  and  Ecclesiastes  (c.  250- 
200  B.C.) ;  (Jb)  the  psalm  in  chap.  2  is  made  up  largely  of 
phrases  taken  from  the  Psalter,  and  from  some  of  the  psalms 
which  are  post-exihc,  after  the  analogy  of  Pss.  142,  143  and 
144 : 1-11 ;  (c)  the  fact  that  the  name  of  the  king  of  Nineveh, 

1  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Zech.  9- 
14,  LOT,  346  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  259  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  136  ff. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  226  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  363  ff.  Gray,  Introd. 
228  ff.  Moore,  LOT,  210  ff.  HDB,  iv.  968  ff.  (Nowack) ;  extra  vol. 
7086  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  iv.  5391  ff.  (Wellhausen).  Introds.  in  Comms. 
on  Zech.  9-14,  espec.  Int.  Crit.  (Mitchell) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII, 
vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith);  Cen.  B.,  vol.  2  (Driver);  cf.  Bible  Handbooks 
(Dods).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  112  ff.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  36  ff., 
453  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  423  ff.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  273  f., 
311  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  501  f.,  30  f.  Kirkpatrick,  Doct.  Prophs.  442  ff. 
Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  323  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  208  ff.,  216  ff. 
Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  167  f.  Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  114  ff.,  121  ff. 
W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.^  414,  n.  21  (  =  412,  n.  21,  old  ed.).  W.  R. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church 2,  102  f.  Chevne,  Founders,  etc.,  319  f.  San- 
ders, Hist.  Hebrs.  236  f.,  285  f.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  379  ff. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  ii.  752a  (Konig). 


280      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

who  plays  such  a  prominent  part  in  the  book  (cf.  chap.  3), 
is  not  given,  naturally  leads  to  the  inference  that  the  writer 
is  not  describing  contemporary  events;  and  (d)  the  As- 
syrian empire,  it  is  implied,  had  long  since  passed  away,  as 
can  be  seen  in  such  expressions  as  ''Nineveh  was  an  exceed- 
ing great  city"  (3:3),  and  in  the  title  ''king  of  Nineveh" 
(3:6),  which  was  never  used  when  the  Assyrian  kingdom 
existed. 

The  title  "the  king  of  Nineveh'^  is  one  "that  could  never  have 
been  applied  to  him  in  Assyria,  nor  at  a  time  when  the  Assyrian 
empire  was  still  in  existence.  Had  the  Book  of  Jonah  been  com- 
piled while  the  power  of  Assyria  was  still  felt  and  feared  in  the 
West,  we  should  have  heard,  as  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Isaiah, 
of  'the  great  king' ;   'the  king  of  Assyria.'"  ^ 

Cf .  also  the  significance  of  the  way  in  which  Nineveh  is  referred 
to  (3  :  3  ff.),  as  if  not  much  was  known  of  it  by  those  for  whom  this 
book  was  written.^ 

In  addition  to  the  language  referred  to  above  under  (a)  cf. 
3  :  9  with  Joel  2  :  14,  and  4  :  2  with  Ex.  34  :  6  (  =  JE  or  R),  Joel 
2 :  13,  etc.  Note  also  the  relation  of  1 : 9  to  Gen.  1:9  ( =  P,  c. 
500  B.C.)  and  the  fact  that  in  the  Hebrew  the  same  word  for  "dry 
land"  is  used.  Cf.  further  the  descriptive  phrase  "the  God  of 
heaven"  as  applied  to  Jehovah  (1 : 9),  used  commonly  in  post- 
exilic  times  but  rarely  in  pre-exilic  (Ezra  1:2;  6 : 9,  10  and  fre- 
quently in  Ezra-Neh.,  etc.). 

Among  other  reasons  given  for  the  late  date  of  the  book  are : 
(e)  the  legalistic  spirit  of  the  prayer  in  chap.  2 ;  (/)  the  underly- 
ing thought  and  spirit  of  the  book  presuppose  the  teaching  of  the 
prophetic  period  (cf.  3  :  10  with  Jer.  18 :  7  f.) ;  and  also  (g)  the 
universaHstic  spirit  expressed  in  4  :  11  (cf.  Ps.  36  :  6). 

While  in  view  of  such  facts  as  these  the  post-exilic  date  is 
now  commonly  held,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  determine 
with  certainty  its  precise  occasion.  The  lesson  of  the  book 
is  one  that  would  have  been  timely  in  almost  any  period  of 
post-exiUc  Judaism.  On  account,  however,  especially  of  the 
Hnguistic  evidence,  it  may  reasonably  be  assigned  to  c.  300 
B.C.,  though  it  may  belong  possibly  somewhat  earUer  in  the 
post-exilic  age. 

Among  earlier  dates  cf.  the  5th  cen.  b.c.  (Driver,  Kautzsch,  Ryle, 

1  Cf.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc.,  487. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  2566  (Cheyne). 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN    PERIOD  281 

etc.).     Between   450-250    b.c.     (Gray);     400-200    b.c.    (Bewer). 
Among  later  dates,  cf.  H.  P.  Smith  =  250-200  b.c. 

On  chap.  2  (poetic)  as  an  insertion  in  the  book,  cf.  p.  304,  iv.  h.^  ^ 

2.  Poetical  Writings 

A.  The  Song  of  Solomon.  This  book  is  attributed  in  its 
superscription  (1:1)  to  Solomon,  but  it  is  generally  agreed 
that  this  is  not  an  original  part  of  the  book.  The  date  and 
occasion  accordingly  have  to  be  determined  by  the  evidence 
which  the  book  itself  furnishes. 

That  the  superscription  does  not  belong  to  the  author  of  the 
poem  is  showTi  by  the  fact  that  in  the  book  itself  the  short  form  of 
the  Hebrew  relative  pronoun  is  used  exclusively  (viz.  ''sh"),  while 
in  the  heading  the  longer  form  is  found  (viz.  '"asher");  cf.  (5) 
below. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  facts  bearing  on  the 
date :  (a)  the  presence  of  Aramaisms,  and  of  many  words 
found  never  or  rarely  in  Bibhcal  Hebrew  but  which  are 
common  in  Aramaic. 

Among  Aramaisms,  cf.  " shallamah "  (  =  " f or  why,"  1:7), 
and  such  constructions  as,  literally,  "my  vineyard  which  is  to  me" 
(1:6);  "his  bed  which  is  to  Solomon"  (3 :  7),  which  are  "found 
elsewhere  only  in  the  Mishnah  and  in  Syriac."  ^ 

(b)  The  short  form  of  the  Hebrew  relative  pronoun 
(=  ''sh")  is  used  exclusively,  instead  of  the  longer  form 
(=  '^'asher"),  which  alUes  it  with  Lamentations,  c.  580-550 

1  For  interpretations  of  the  book,  cf.  especially  LOT,  323  ff.  G.  A. 
Smith,  Book  of  XII,  ii.  500  ff.  Bewer,  Jonah,  6  ff.,  62  fif.  Cornill, 
Introd.  338.     Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  170  ff. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Jonah, 
LOT.  321  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  244  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  134  f.,  199. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  196  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  336  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  215  ff. 
Moore,  LOT,  138  ff.  HDB,  ii.  744  ff.  (Konig).  EBi,  ii.  2087  (Moore); 
2565  ff. ;  cf.  iii.  3897  f.  (Cheyne).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Jonah,  espec. 
Int.  Crit.  (Bewer) ;  Expos.  B.  =  Bk.  of  XII,  vol.  2  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  Cen. 
B.,  vol.  1  (Horton).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  112.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc., 
32  f.,  419  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  425  f.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  116  f., 
263  ff.,  311  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  29,  502  f.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc., 
486  ff.  Hunter,  After  Exile,  ii.  42  f.,  51  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  116,  204  f. 
Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  170  ff.  Bennett,  Post-Ex-il.  Prophs.  114  ff.,  126  f. 
Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  339  ff.  Farrar,  Minor  Prophs.  231  ff.  Cheyne, 
Jew.  Relig.  Life,  91,  218  f.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  314  ff.  Sanders, 
Hist.  Hebrs.  287.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  313  ff. 

3  Cf.  Harper,  Song  of  Sol.  xxvi.     Cornill,  Introd.  458. 


282      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

B.C.,  Jonah,  c.  300  (?)  b.c.  and  Ecclesiastes,  c.  250-200  b.c. 
(where  it  is  often  found). 

Note,  however,  that  the  short  form  of  the  relative  is  found  in 
the  Song  of  Deborah  (Judg.  5:7),  which  is  considered  one  of  the 
earhest  pieces  of  Hebrew  literature,  and  in  some  few  other  earlier 
narratives.  While  its  usage  is  obscure,  its  exclusive  use  in  the  Song 
of  Solomon  points  to  the  late  date  of  the  book. 

(c)  Foreign  words  occur,  such  as  that  translated  ' '  orchard  '^ 
(4:  13),  of  Persian  origin,  and  that  rendered  ''palanquin" 
(3:9),  which  seems  most  probably  to  be  derived  from  the 
Greek ;  ^  and  (c)  the  spirit  reflected  in  the  poem  is  a  peaceful 
and  contented  one. 

The  above  facts,  especially  the  linguistic,  favor  the  post- 
exilic  period,  when  the  Aramaic  influence  came  in  and  Per- 
sian words  first  became  familiar.  Cf.  the  same  Persian 
word  C'pardes")  translated  ''orchard"  (4:13),  which  is 
also  found  in  Neh.  2:8  (rendered  "forest,"  R.  V.)  and 
Eccles.  2  :  5  (translated  "parks").  Two  dates  in  this  period 
have  been  suggested  for  this  book.  The  earlier  one  is  during 
the  prosperous  era  following  the  constructive  work  of 
Nehemiah,  432  ff.  b.c,  when  Hebrew  was  still  a  living  lan- 
guage, but  the  Aramaic  was  gaining  in  influence.^  It  has 
accordingly  been  assigned  by  some  scholars  to  the  second 
part  of  the  Persian  period,  c.  400  b.c.  and  onwards,  as  the 
most  probable  occasion.^ 

The  later  time  in  this  period,  which  many  recent  scholars 
think  more  probable,  is  after  the  Greek  conquest.  This 
harmonizes  with  the  linguistic  evidence,  and  accounts  most 
naturally  for  the  presence  of  a  word  of  Greek  origin. 

According  to  Principal  Harper,  however,  who  places  its  origin 
in  the  Persian  period,  it  would  have  been  possible  for  this  Greek 
word  to  come  into  currency  among  the  Jews  by  way  of  Egypt, 
long  before  the  Grecian  period.^ 

While  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  precise  occasion  in  the 

1  The  words  are  "pardes"  =  the  Persian  "pairidaeza,"  and  "appiryon,'* 
cf.  the  Greek  "phoreion"  {4>opelov). 

2  Cf.  the  inference  from  Neh.  13 :  24  that  up  to  that  time,  432  b.c, 
Hebrew  was  the  "Jews'  language." 

3  E.g.  Harper  in  Song  of  Sol.  xxxi,  following  Wellhausen. 
^  Ibid.,  xxvii  f. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    GRECIAN   PERIOD  283 

Greek  era  for  its  composition,  a  date  c.  300  b.c.  may  be  taken 
tentatively  as  a  probable  one. 

Among  other  reasons  for  considering  the  Song  of  Sol.  post-exilic 
is  the  fact  that  its  canonicity  was  questioned  down  to  c.  100  a.d. 
If  it  were  a  pre-exilic  production,  this  is  difficult  to  account  for ; 
but  it  can  readily  be  explained  if  of  late  origin.^ 

For  different  interpretations  and  analyses  of  the  book,  cf.  p.  304, 
iv.  g.  and  Ap.  B.,  pp.  330-332.2 

B.  Collections  of  Proverbs.^  The  questions  of  Solomonic 
proverbs,  and  of  the  collections  which  have  the  strongest 
claims  for  pre-exilic  dating,  have  already  been  considered 
(pp.  116-122).  It  remains  now  to  notice  the  groups  w^hich 
seem  more  likely  to  be  post-exihc ;  also  the  time  when  the 
different  sections  were  united  to  make  up  the  book  in  its 
present  form. 

a.  Prov.  1-9.  As  previously  noticed  (p.  116),  these 
chapters  consist  of  a  general  preface  or  introduction  (1  :  1-6) 
and  the  main  portion  (1  :  7-9  :  18). 

Whatever  the  significance  of  Prov.  1 :  la  (cf.  p.  117),  it  is  now 
generally  allowed  that  it  does  not  apply  to  chaps.  1-9.  It  was 
probably  prefixed  originally  with  reference  especially  to  the  col- 
lection 10 :  1  ff.,  to  denote  that  it  contained  Solomonic  proverbs.^ 

It  is  generally  agreed  among  scholars,  that  with  the  excep- 
tion of  chapters  30-31,  they  represent  the  latest  division  of 

1  For  arguments  in  favor  of  the  pre-exilic  composition  of  this  poem, 
cf.  especially,  LOT,  449  f.,  where,  however,  the  strong  force  of  the  linguistic 
evidence  for  a  late  date  is  conceded  ;  and  this  as  Harper  points  out  con- 
stitutes "the  really  decisive  element  in  regard  to  date."  (Song  of  Sol. 
XXV  ff.) 

Cf.  also  the  statement  of  Kent  that  some  of  the  songs  of  this  poem 
"may  weU  come  from  the  days  preceding  the  exile."  See  his  Songs,  etc., 
28. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  LOT,  436  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  167  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT, 
148  ff.  McFadven,  Introd.  282  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  456  ff.  Gray, 
Introd.  155  ff.  Aloore,  LOT,  244  ff.  HDB,  iii.  6136  (Woods) ;  iv.  9a, 
10,  13a  (Budde);  589  ff.  (Rothstein).  EBi,  i.  681  ff.  (Cheyne) ;  iii. 
3798  (Duhm).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Song  of  Solomon,  espec.  Expos. 
B.  (Adeney) ;  Camb.  B.  (Andrew  Harper) ;  Cen.  B.  (Martin).  Bennett, 
Primer,  etc.,  97  f.  Kent,  Songs,  etc.,  22  ff.,  89  ff.  Griffis,  Lily  among 
Thorns.  Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  309  ff.  Schmidt,  Poets,  215  ff.  H.  P. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  426  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  19.  Cheyne,  Founders, 
etc.,  349  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  131  f.,  147  f.,  187,  209  f.  Sanders,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  286.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  359  ff. 

3  Proverbs  is  one  of  the  books  of  the  Wisdom  literature.     See  p.  235,  n.  ^ 

4  Cf.  LOT,  406. 


284     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

the  book.  The  two  parts  1 : 1-6  and  1 :  7-9  :  18  may  belong 
to  the  same  author. 

The  following  facts  bear  especially  on  the  date :  (a)  the 
Uterary  form  of  this  section,  which  differs  in  a  marked  way 
from  the  main  collections  of  the  book  (10 :  1  ff. ;  chaps. 
25-29).  The  latter  consist  of  proverbs  in  the  form  of  coup- 
lets, each  complete  in  itself.  In  the  former,  instead  of 
proverbs,  there  is  the  orderly  and  elaborate  development  of 
themes,  characterized  by  a  hortatory  tone  throughout. 
These  chapters  have  not  inaptly  been  described  as  a  ''series 
of  didactic  poems."  ^  This  more  developed  literary  struc- 
ture (cf.  chap.  2,  which  forms  a  single  sentence),  according 
to  some  scholars  suggests  Greek  influence.  In  any  event  the 
more  elaborate  literary  form  implies  an  advance  upon  the 
simpler  sentence  uniformly  found  in  10 :  1  ff. 

(6)  The  different  conception  and  treatment  of  wisdom 
in  chaps.  1-9  from  that  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  book  is 
an  important  consideration.  In  the  latter  it  refers  to  ''pru- 
dent conduct,"  and  to  such  right  attitude  toward  God  as 
would  be  rewarded  by  the  divine  blessing,  expressed  in  man's 
material,  social  and  spiritual  well-being.  In  the  former 
(chaps.  1-9),  "Wisdom"  is  personified  (cf.  1 :  20  ff. ;  chaps. 
2,  3,  etc.),  and  in  some  places  is  almost  pictured  as  "aninde- 
pendent  personality"  (cf.  chap.  8).  According  to  Toy,  it 
has  in  these  chapters  "a  peculiar  religious  or  divine  character 
which  it  is  not  easy  to  define  with  precision.  In  chap.  8  it  is 
both  a  human  (vss.  1-21)  and  a  divine  quality  (vss.  22-31)."  ^ 
Such  a  developed  conception  implies  a  long  period  of  specula- 
tion and  hence  a  late  date.  According  to  some  the  possi- 
bility of  Greek  philosophical  influence  may  be  found  in 
8 :  22  ff.,  but  this  view  is  not  generally  accepted  by  Old 
Testament  scholars.^ 

(c)  The  hterary  parallels  as  related  to  the  date.  The 
account  of  the  divine  work  in  Creation  (chap.  8)  is  in  ad- 

1  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  96. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3916  (Toy). 

3  In  favor  of  Greek  influence  in  Prov.  8 :  22  ff.,  cf.  Cornill,  Introd.  444  f. 
HDB,  iv.  9246  f.  (Siegfried).  EBi,  iii.  3913  (Toy) ;  iv.  5330  (Toy). 
Toy,  Prov.  xxii,  181.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  433.  See  also  quotation 
from  Duhm  in  Strahan,  Job,  232  f.,  etc.  Cf.  contra,  Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol. 
159  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  288.  McFadyen,  Introd.  261. 
HDB,  iv.  1426  (Nowack)  =  ''rightly  rejected  by  Kuenen,  Baudissin  and 
others,"  etc. 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  285 

vance  of  Gen.  1  (P  =  c.  500  b.c).  The  closest  resemblance 
to  chap.  8  is  found  in  Job  28,  but  the  opinion  of  scholars 
differs  in  reference  to  the  question  of  the  priority  of  these 
chapters.^  The  section  as  a  whole  has  much  affinity  with 
Ecclesiasticus  (especially  chap.  24),  c.  200-180  b.c,  and  also 
the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  (first  cen.  b.c). 

According  to  Toy,  Proverbs  resembles  Ben-Sira  ( =  Ecclus.) 
*'in  point  of  view,  spirit  and  contents" ;  the  special  feature  of  re- 
semblance being  that  neither  claims  divine  inspiration.  His 
inference  is  that  this  points  to  a  post-prophetic,  post-legal  date.^ 

Among  other  arguments  for  the  late  composition  of  chaps.  1-9, 
which  are  advanced  are :  (d)  the  conception  of  Sheol  in  9:18, 
which  is  not  as  in  the  rest  of  the  O.  Test,  the  place  of  departed 
spirits,  but  the  abode  of  the  wicked ;  (e)  the  inference  that  the 
sages  are  an  influential  class,  and  that  wisdom  has  become  a  subject 
of  discussion  in  the  schools  (cf.  the  form  of  address  ''my  son," 
1 : 8,  10,  etc. ;  a  characteristic  wanting  in  the  main  body  of  the 
book,  10 :  1  ff.) ;  and  (/)  the  prominence  of  the  sins  of  robbery 
(cf.  1:10  ff.)  and  unchastity  (e.g.  2:16  ff. ;  5).  The  latter  is 
''relatively  infrequent"  in  polygamous  communities,  hence  its 
existence  implies  the  post-exilic  period  when  monogamy  was  the 
custom. 

The  above  facts  seem  reasonably  to  require  a  date  in  the 
post-exilic  period  for  the  origin  of  this  section.  The  exact 
time,  however,  is  difficult  to  determine.  Kautzsch  con- 
cludes that  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  b.c^  Nowack,  who  formerly  assigned  it  to  a  time 
"shortly  before  the  Exile,"  more  recently  concludes  that  a 
date  c.  250  b.c  for  this  section  and  the  book  as  a  whole  is 
approximately  correct.  He  adds,  "to  bring  the  date  further 
down  is  impossible,  inasmuch  as  no  reason  is  then  evident 
why  Sirach"  {i.e.  Ecclus.)  "itself  was  not  admitted  to  the 
Canon."  ^  The  early  part  of  the  Greek  period,  c.  300-250 
B.C.,  may  accordingly  be  assumed  as  a  reasonably  probable 
time  for  its  composition. 

The  hortatory  tone  in  Prov.  1-9  has  commonly  been  appealed 
to  as  evidence  of  the  influence  of  Deut.,  and  hence  as  indicating 

1  For  discussion  of  the  relative  date  of  Prov.  8  and  Job  28,  cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  on  these  chaps. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3916  (Toy);cf.  his  Prov.  xviii  f.      Cornill,  Introd.  4-!5. 

3  Cf .  Kautzsch,  LOT,  1.53 ;   also  HDB,  extra  vol.  7286,  n.  f. 

4  Cf.  HDB,  iv.  1425  (Nowack). 


286      AN    INTRODUCTION    TO   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

the  time  of  composition  as  somewhere  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  e.g, 
c.  615  B.C.  The  words  of  the  elder  Delitzsch  are  frequently  quoted 
in  this  connection :  ''who  can  fail  to  hear  in  Prov.  i :  7-ix  an  echo 
of  the  'Shema'  ( =  'hear/  cf.  Deut.  6:4-9;   11 :  18-21)." 

Cf.  on  the  other  hand  the  conclusion  of  Montefiore  that  the 
references  to  the  wealthy  city  in  chaps.  1-9;  the  reminiscences 
of  Deuteronomy ;  the  mention  of  the  king,  are  easier  to  be  gotten 
over  than  the  silence  in  reference  to  idolatry ;  the  individuahsm ; 
the  praise  of  chastity;  the  monogamic  point  of  view;  and  the 
general  coolness  and  certainty  of  temper  and  tone.^ 

For  some  of  the  variant  dates  assigned  to  chaps.  1-9,  cf.  pp. 
312  f.,  V.  0. 

h.  Prov.  30-31.  These  chapters  (which  may  conven- 
iently be  divided  into  three  sections,  viz.  chap.  30  ;  31 :  1-9  ; 
31 :  10-31,  and  which  form  an  appendix  to  the  main  book  of 
Proverbs)  are  generally  considered  the  latest  portion  of  the 
book.  This  conclusion  is  based  on  the  following  considera- 
tions :  (a)  the  presence  of  occasional  Aramaisms  {e.g, 
31 :  2  f.,  etc.) ;  (b)  the  questioning  (agnostic)  spirit  (30  :!&.), 
which  has  its  closest  parallel  in  Ecclesiastes,  c.  250-200  ( ?) 
B.C.  rather  than  in  Job,  c.  350  (?)  B.C. ;  (c)  the  allusion  to  a 
''fixed  written  revelation  (30  :  5  f.)  to  which  nothing  is  to  be 
added  and  from  which  nothing  is  to  be  taken  away,"  which 
implies  a  late  period ;  (d)  the  literary  form  of  these  chapters, 
e.g.  the  alphabetical  (or  acrostic)  poem  (31 :  10-31),  the 
artificial  character  of  which  indicates  a  relatively  late  date ; 
and  the  numerical  proverbs  (30:15-31),  whose  closest 
analogies  are  found  in  the  productions  of  the  early  Rabbinical 
school ;  and  {e)  the  imitation  of  earlier  literature  (30 :  5; 
cf.  Pss.  12:  6  and  18:30). 

The  commercial  activity  indicated  in  31 :  10  ff.  has  also  been 
cited  in  favor  of  a  late  date,  but  this  in  itself  is  not  decisive.  Some, 
while  assigning  30 :  1-31 :  9  to  the  post-exilic  age,  favor  the  pre- 
exihc  origin  of  31 :  10-31.^ 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  while  the  exact  date  cannot  be 
determined  with  certainty,  it  may  be  inferred  with  proba- 
bihty  that  they  originated  in  the  Greek  period.  If  the  time  of 
composition  given  for  Prov.  1-9  in  this  volume  is  correct, 
viz.  300-250  B.C.,  then  chaps  30-31  may  have  been  written 

1  Cf.  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.,  July,  1890,  p.  442. 

2  Cf.  Bennett,  Introd.  153,  156  (possibly  "early  monarchy"). 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  287 

c.  250-200  B.C.,  on  the  basis  of  the  generally  accepted  view 
that  they  are  the  latest  portion  of  the  book. 

For  some  of  the  variant  (post-exilic)  dates  for  chaps.  30-31, 
cf.  p.  314,  V.  y. 

c.  The  combination  of  the  different  collections  of  Proverbs. 
The  time  of  the  compilation  of  the  book  of  Proverbs  depends 
upon  what  editor  combined  the  various  collections,  and  how 
much  was  included,  —  whether  the  great  bulk  of  the  present 
book  or  substantially  the  whole. 

That  chaps.  1-9  were  prefixed  as  an  introduction  to  at 
least  the  main  collection,  10  :  1-22  :  16,  is  a  matter  of  common 
agreement.  The  opinion  of  scholars,  however,  differs  in 
reference  to  how  much,  if  any,  more  was  included  in  that 
editing.  Driver,  who  holds  the  view  of  the  late  pre-exilic 
origin  of  chaps.  1-9,  considers  that  they  were  written  as  an 
introduction  to  chaps.  10  :  1-22  :  16  alone,  to  which  the  other 
collections  were  subsequently  added. ^  Some  {e.g.  Cornill) 
ascribe  the  publication  of  the  whole  book  to  the  author  of 
chaps.  1-9 ;    others  (Wildeboer)  all  except  31  or  31  :  10  ff.- 

Cf.  also  Toy,  who  holds  that  chaps.  30-31  were  added  by  the 
latest  editor,  i.e.  after  collections  chaps.  1-29  had  been  made  up.^ 

The  question  is  difficult  to  determine ;  but  it  is  not  a 
matter  of  great  importance.  According  to  the  chronological 
scheme  adopted  above,  to  the  author  of  chaps.  1-9  is  attrib- 
uted the  combination  of  all  the  rest  of  the  book,  except 
chaps.  30-31,  which  are  considered  a  still  later  supplement. 
Hence  the  date  of  the  compilation  of  the  book  may  be  taken 
tentatively  as  c.  300-250  b.c. 

'^Exactly  when  and  how  the  various  parts  were  combined  into 
a  book  it  is  hardly  possible  to  say  .  .  .  the  main  point  is  that  the 
process  probably  went  on  through  the  fourth  and  third  centuries, 
and  the  appendix  30  f.  may  have  been  added  still  later."  "We 
may  probably  refer  the  present  form  of  the  book  to  the  Greek 
period."  ^  -j 

For  some  of  the  variant  dates  assigned  to  the  compilation  of 
Prov.,  cf.  p.  312,  v.  n.^ 

1  Cf.  LOT,  405.  2  Cf.  references,  HDB,  iv.  143a  (Nowa^^k). 

3  Cf.  Toy,  Prov.  xxx,  517.     EBi,  iii.  3917  f.  (Toy). 
'  Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3918,  3913  (Toy). 

5  For  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Proverbs, 
cf.  list  of  authorities,  p.  122,  n.  ^ 


288     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

3.   Miscellaneous  Writings 

A.  Ecdesiastes}  This  book  of  the  Old  Testament  Wis- 
dom nterature,^  in  which  Solomon  is  impersonated  as  the 
speaker,  is  now  held  by  practically  all  scholars  to  be  a  work 
of  a  much  later  time.  The  following  are  some  of  the  im- 
portant facts  which  substantiate  this  conclusion :  (a)  the 
social  and  political  conditions  reflected  indicate  not  only  an 
age  when  the  Jews  had  lost  their  independence,  but  also  a 
time  of  instability  of  government  and  of  oppression.  This 
is  seen  in  the  references  to  injustice  practised  (3  :  16 ;  4  : 1  ff . ; 
5 :  8  f . ;  8:9);  the  reversals  of  fortune  due  to  despotism 
(10  :  5  ff.) ;  political  upheaval  (10  :  7) ;  employment  of 
spies  (10  :  20),  etc.  (6)  Corresponding  to  these  conditions  a 
spirit  of  depression  and  a  lack  of  hope  for  the  future  of  the 
community  are  manifested  {e.g.  6:12).  (c)  The  language 
and  style  of  the  book  also  require  a  late  date.  The  judgment 
of  the  elder  Delitzsch  on  this  feature  of  the  book  is  often 
quoted,  viz.  that  if  its  language  is  old  Solomonic,  ''then  there 
is  no  history  of  the  Hebrew  language."  While  there  are 
numerous  affinities  with  the  latest  Hebrew  found  in  the  Old 
Testament,  such  as  Chronicles  (c.  300-250  b.c),  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  (c.  300-250  B.C.)  and  Esther  (c.  250-150  B.C.), 
it  has  as  well  many  features  first  found  in  Ecclesiasticus 
(c.  200-180  B.C.)  or  in  the  Mishnah  (c.  200  a.d.).  The  con- 
clusion, therefore,  of  Driver  and  many  others  is  that  Hnguis- 
tically  it  stands  by  itself  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Of.  the  Persian  word  ''pardes,"  rendered  ''parks,"  2:5.  See 
p.  282(c),  n.i. 

The  linguistic  features  are,  especially,  deterioration  of  syntax; 
cumbrous  sentences ;  and  admixture  of  Aramaisms. 

{d)  The  rehgious  tone  and  conceptions  of  the  book  are 
in  harmony  with  a  late  date.  While  the  worship  of  the 
Temple  is  closely  observed  there  is  a  lack  of  rehgious  enthu- 
siasm and  little  comfort  is  derived  from  its  services  {e.g. 

1  The  name  Ecclesiastes  is  derived  from  the  LXX,  which  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  title  "Qoheleth"  (1 :  2,  etc.).  The  exact  meaning  of 
this  word  is  uncertain  (cf.  E.  V.  "Preacher"),  though  its  connection  with 
the  Hebrew  word,  "qahal"  (=  "assembly")  is  generally  conceded.  Cf. 
for  further  discussion  Comms,  in  loc.  and  Introds. 

2  For  the  books  of  the  Wisdom  Uterature,  see  p.  235,  n.  ^. 


LITERATURE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  289 

5  : 1  ff.).     The  fear  of  God,  which  is  inculcated,  restrains  but 
does  not  inspire  {e.g.  5:7;  7  :  18,  26 ;  8  :  12  f.,  etc.). 

''Something  of  the  well-bred  indifference  of  the  Sadducee  has 
crept  over  men's  souls.''  ^  "The  religious  spirit  of  Israel  is  seen 
to  be  completely  exhausted."  ^ 

In  \'iew  of  these  facts  the  book  is  now  generally  assigned 
either  to  the  close  of  the  Persian  dominion,^  or  later  in  the 
Greek  period,  during  the  years  of  conflict  between  the  Ptole- 
mies and  the  Seleucidse  (c.  300  ff.  b.c),  but  before  the  stir- 
ring years  of  the  Maccabean  struggle  (170-164  B.C.),  when  the 
national  feeling  was  so  strongly  revived. 

The  lack  of  national  feeling,  the  linguistic  characteristics, 
and  the  possible  indirect  influence  from  Greek  speculation 
favor  rather  the  later  of  the  two  periods.  And  while  it  is 
impossible  to  fix  with  certainty  the  exact  date,  the  view  now 
entertained  by  many  scholars  that  it  belongs  c.  250-200  B.C. 
may  be  taken  as  a  very  probable  one. 

A  number  of  scholars  think  that  there  are  clear  indications  of 
Greek  teaching  in  the  book :  e.g.  Epicureanism  (cf .  happiness  in 
the  reasonable  enjoyment  of  the  good  things  of  life ;  see  2  :  24  f . ; 
3  :  12  f.,  22 ;  9  :  7-9,  etc.) ;  and  Stoic  doctrine  (cf .  the  conception 
of    recurring    cycles;    see    1:2-11;    and  determinism,   see  chap. 

This  view,  however,  is  opposed  b}^  a  large  number  of  scholars. 
According  to  Cheyne,  "indirect  Greek  philosophical  influence  is 
all  that  is  quite  certain."  ^ 

Many  scholars  hold  that  the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus  (209-180 
B.C.)  knew  and  made  use  of  Ecclesiastes.  According  to  this  view 
Eccles.  cannot  be  later  than  c.  200  B.C.  This  harmonizes  with  the 
date  given  above.® 

That  Solomon  was  not  the  author  of  Ecclesiastes  has  already  been 
sho-wTi  by  the  considerations  mentioned  above.  In  addition  the 
following  points  may  be  referred  to :  (a)  the  tone  of  the  book  is 
not  that  of  Solomon.  There  is  no  ground  in  the  book  for  the  popu- 
lar view,  that  it  is  the  product  of  his  old  age  after  repenting  of 

1  Cf.  Bennett,  Introd.  161. 

2  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  1161  f.  (Davidson). 

3  Cf.  arguments  in  Plumptre,  Eccles.  29  f. 

4  Cf.  Ibid.,  30  f. 

B  Cf.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  198  f.     Barton,  Eccles.  32-43. 
8  For  list  of  the  passages  in  Ecclus.  dependent  upon  Eccles.  and  grounds 
for  this  conclusion,  cf.  Barton,  Eccles.  53  fP. 


290      AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

idolatry,  for  no  note  of  penitence  is  found  in  it ;  (6)  the  political 
and  social  allusions  are  inconsistent  with  Solomonic  authorship, 
e.g.  the  mention  of  unrighteous  judgment  (cf .  3:16;  also  4:1; 
5:8);  also  the  references  to  other  kings  (cf.  4  :  13-16 ;  10  :  16  f .) ; 
(c)  it  contains  also  descriptions  which  are  not  correct  historically, 
and  which  seem  impossible  for  Solomon  to  have  written  (e.g. 
''I  .  .  .  was  king,  etc.,"  1 :  12,  but  Solomon  was  king  till  his  death. 
Cf.  also  the  statements  in  1 :  16 ;  2  :  7,  9,  which  are  not  in  keeping 
with  the  fact  that  David,  Solomon's  father,  was  the  founder  of 
Jerusalem  as  the  royal  city) .  And  (d)  to  the  above  may  be  added 
the  fact  that  the  observations  in  the  book  are  from  the  standpoint 
of  a  subject,  not  that  of  a  king  (e.g.  3  :  16 ;  4:1,  etc.). 

Different  explanations  are  given  of  the  impersonation  of  Solomon 
in  the  book ;  e.g.  (a)  as  an  attempt  to  represent  what  might  have 
been  Solomon's  reflections  on  Hfe ;  ^  or  (h)  the  choice  of  Solomon, 
who  was  regarded  as  a  great  sage  and  founder  of  the  wise  men  as  a 
class,  as  a  fitting  mouth-piece  for  the  writer's  reflections,  since  that 
king's  experiences  and  observations  would  be  regarded  as  typical. 
The  author's  modesty  might  well  be  one  of  the  factors  also  in  this 
literary  device.^  In  any  case  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the 
dramatic  impersonation  of  character  has  at  all  times  been  employed 
legitimately.  So  in  this  instance  there  is  no  ground  for  regarding 
it  as  a  literary  forgery  or  an  attempt  to  deceive.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  the  Solomonic  guise  is  soon  abandoned. 

Among  earlier  dates  given  to  Eccles.  cf.  toward  the  end  of  the 
Persian  period ;  e.g.  Cheyne,  formerly  following  Ewald,  Delitzsch, 
Ginsburg,  etc. 

Among  later  dates  =  the  2nd  cen.  B.C.,  H.  P.  Smith,  Toy,  Sieg- 
fried, etc.  c.  200  B.C.  (Gray,  cf.  c.  198  b.c.  =  Barton).  The  time 
of  Herod  the  Great,  40  (39)-4  b.c.  =  Cheyne,  Jew.  ReUg.  Life, 
XV,  199  ff. 

For  different  views  of  the  composite  character  of  the  book,  cf. 
p.  312,  iv.  p.s 

1  Cf.  Robertson,  Early  Relig.  Isr.  420. 

2  Cf.  Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol.  207. 

3  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Eccle- 
siastes,  LOT,  465  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  160  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  162  ff. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  298  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  447  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  149  ff. 
Moore,  LOT,  241  ff.  HDB,  i.  637  ff.  (Peake) ;  iv.  927  (Siegfried) ;  iii. 
6135  (Woods) ;  extra  vol.  731  f.  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  ii.  1155  ff.  (David- 
son) ;  iv.  5334  f.  (Toy).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Eccles.,  espec.  Int.  Crit. 
(Barton) ;  Camb.  B.  (Plumptre) ;  Cen.  B.  (Martin).  Bennett,  Primer, 
etc.,  115  f.  Cheyne,  Job  and  Sol.  199  ff.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  349, 
358  f.  Cheyne,  Jew.  Relig.  Life,  183  ff.  Genung,  Koheleth,  espec.  16  ff. 
Kent,  Jew.  People,  275  f.,  319  f.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  20,  cf.  508.  G.  A. 
Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  286.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  130,  148  f.,  187. 
Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  285.     Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  337  ff. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  291 

B.  Esther.  The  scene  of  this  story  is  placed  in  the  reign  of 
Ahasuerus  (  =  Xerxes),  485-465  b.c.  The  date  of  its  com- 
position, however,  belongs  to  a  later  time.  This  conclusion 
is  based  on  the  following  facts :  (a)  the  statement  in  1  :  1 
shows  that  the  book  was  written  subsequent  to  the  reign  of 
Ahasuerus  (i.e.  Xerxes) ;  (b)  the  way  in  which  Persian  cus- 
toms are  explained  (1  :  13  f. ;  8:8)  most  naturally  implies 
that  the  Persian  dominion  had  ended,  i.e.  that  it  was  later 
than  332  b.c.  ;  (c)  the  hnguistic  features  of  the  book  indi- 
cate a  later  age  than  that  of  Xerxes,  e.g.  '4ate  words  and 
idioms";  ''much  deterioration  in  syntax";  and  the  pres- 
ence of  words  of  Aramaic  and  Persian  origin. 

''.  .  .  the  whole  nature  of  the  style,  which  is  characterized  by  a 
certain  lack  of  ease,  seems  to  show  that  the  author  spoke  and 
thought  in  Aramaic,  and  had  learned  Hebrew  merely  as  a  Uterary 
language."  ^ 

And  (d)  the  historical  inaccuracies  and  improbabilities 
of  the  book  can  be  best  explained  on  the  supposition  of  a 
date  much  later  than  the  time  of  the  events  described. 

Some  of  these  improbabiUties,  etc.,  are:  (a)  the  holding  of  a 
six-months'  feast  (1:4),  which  would  require  the  absence  of  the 
different  governors  from  their  provinces ;  (6)  the  decree  permitting 
the  wholesale  slaughter  by  the  Jews  of  their  enemies  (8:9  ff . ; 
9 :  1  ff.) ;  (c)  the  manner  in  which  the  story  develops  and  cul- 
minates, ''its  successive  incidents  arrange  themselves  so  perfectly 
and  lead  up  to  the  conclusion  with  such  neat  precision,  that  it  is 
not  easy  to  assign  it  to  the  normal  course  of  events"  ;  ^  (d)  the  im- 
possibiHty  of  Mordecai  being  carried  away  to  Babylon  in  the  time 
of  Jehoiachin  (2 :  5  f.),  597  B.C.,  and  becoming  prime-minister  in 
the  12th  year  of  Xerxes  (8  :  2  ;  cf .  3  :  7)  =  474-473  b.c.  (e)  Accord- 
ing to  ancient  historians,  Amestris,  a  cruel  and  superstitious  woman 
was  Xerxes'  queen  between  the  7th  and  12th  years  of  his  reign 
(2 :  16;  3:7;  cf.  Herod,  vii.  114;  ix.  112),  and  held  this  position 
till  the  king's  death.  She  cannot  be  identified  with  Esther,  be- 
cause she  was  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  Persian  generals,  and  was 
married  to  Xerxes  before  the  alleged  appearance  of  Esther. 
Esther  cannot  be  explained  as  one  of  the  women  of  the  harem,  for 
the  story  represents  her  clearly  as  being  sole  queen  (cf.  2  :  17,  etc.). 
It  is  to  be  noted  further,  that  according  to  Persian  law  the  king 
was  obliged  to  select  his  queen  from  one  of  the  seven  noble  families 


1  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  1403  (Noldeke). 

2  Cf.  Adeuey,  Ezra,  etc.,  353. 


292      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

of  his  realm  (Herod,  iii.  84).  And  (/)  it  is  difficult  to  account  for 
the  king's  and  Haman's  ignorance  of  Esther's  nationaUty,  since 
Mordecai,  who  was  known  as  a  Jew  (3:4),  is  represented  as  being 
frequently  in  the  king's  gate  and  in  constant  communication  with 
Esther,  etc. 

On  account  of  these  facts  the  book  is  now  generally  as- 
signed to  the  Greek  period.  By  many  it  is  placed  in  the 
early  part  of  it,  but  in  view  of  the  intense  spirit  of  hostility 
exhibited  in  it  toward  foreign  peoples,  it  may  with  greater 
probabihty  be  dated  sometime  in  the  century  beginning 
with  250  B.C. 

Note  also  the  fact  that  neither  the  name  of  Esther  nor  Mor- 
decai is  found  among  the  list  of  worthies  in  Ecclus.  44-49  =  c. 
200-180  B.C. 

While  the  question  of  the  historical  accuracy  of  the  events 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  books  hes  strictly  outside 
the  scope  of  this  volume,  it  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  Esther 
to  determine  to  some  extent  that  problem.  If  Esther  is  to 
be  taken  as  an  historical  writing,  then,  though  written  at  a 
later  time,  it  ought  to  be  placed  in  the  chronological  outline 
of  Bibhcal  material  in  the  time  of  Xerxes,  where  the  scene 
is  laid.  But  though  the  historical  character  of  the  book  is 
still  maintained  by  some  scholars,  in  view  of  its  inaccuracies 
and  improbabilities  it  is  now  commonly  regarded  either  as  a 
work  based  on  historical  facts,  or  as  a  pure  Jewish  haggada 
like  the  Apocryphal  books  of  Tobit  and  Judith.^  -Hence  it 
is  assigned  in  this  volume,  in  the  outUne  of  Biblical  material, 
to  the  period  250  ff.  B.C. 

Among  those  holding  that  Esther  is  based  on  historical  facts  are 
Driver,  Adeney,  Bennett,  Wade,  Streane,  etc. 

Among  those  holding  that  the  book  is  a  haggada  or  religious 
story,  cf.  Kautzsch,  Sayce,  H.  P.  Smith,  Cheyne,  Kent,  Hunter, 
McFadyen,  Noldeke,  Moore,  Paton,  etc. 

''We  have  no  right  to  demand  that  the  Bible  shall  not  contain 
anything  but  what  is  strictly  historical.  The  book  of  Job  has  long 
been  accepted  as  a  sublime  poem,  founded  on  fact  perhaps,  but 
owing  its  chief  value  to  the  divinely  inspired  thoughts  of  its  author. 
The  Book  of  Jonah  is  regarded  by  many  cautious  and  devout 
readers  as  an  allegory  replete  with  important  lessons  concerning  a 

1  The  Jewish  haggada  =  "a  moralizing  tale  or  romance  attached  mostly 
to  historical  names  or  events."     Cf.  LOT,  484,  n.  *,  487,  note. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  293 

very  ugly  aspect  of  Jewish  selfishness.  These  two  works  are  not 
the  less  valuable  because  men  are  coming  to  understand  that  their 
places  in  the  Hbrary  of  the  Hebrew  Canon  are  not  among  the  strict 
records  of  history.  And  the  book  of  Esther  need  not  be  dishonored 
when  some  room  is  allowed  for  the  play  of  the  creative  imagination 
of  its  author."  ^ 

Some  of  the  variant  dates  for  Esther  are  as  follows :  the  early 
part  of  the  Greek  period,  332  ff.  B.C.,  Adeney,  Driver,  Wade,  etc. 
Cf.  Streane  =  not  later  than  300  B.C.  Between  300  B.C.  and  the 
Christian  era  (Gray) ;  3rd  or  2nd  cen.  B.C.  (Moore). 

The  2nd  cen.  B.C.  =  Kent,  Kautzsch,  McFadyen,  Cheyne, 
Noldeke,  etc.  Cf.  towards  135  b.c.  (Comill) ;  c.  130  b.c.  (Davies) ; 
later  than  135  b.c.  (Paton) ;  c.  100  b.c.  (H.  P.  Smith). 

(In  view  of  the  ''strong  national  spirit  and  pride"  and  the 
attitude  of  bitterness  towards  the  heathen  reflected  in  the  book, 
the  successful  outcome  of  the  Maccabean  struggle  is  implied, 
according  to  many  recent  scholars;  hence  a  product  of  the  2nd 
cen.  B.C.) 

According  to  some  authorities  9  :  20-10  :  3  comes  from  a  different 
hand  from  the  rest  of  the  book.     Cf.  Paton,  Esth.,  57  f.^ 

C.  Daniel.  The  scene  of  the  stories  of  this  book  (cf. 
chaps.  1-6),  is  laid  in  Babylon  in  the  time  of  the  Exile,  but 
the  e\ddence  which  the  book  furnishes  is  of  such  a  character, 
that  scholars  are  generally  agreed  that  its  origin  and  applica- 
tion belong  to  a  much  later  time. 

The  following  are  the  principal  facts  upon  which  this 
conclusion  is  based :  1st.  The  linguistic  argument:  (a)  the 
Hebrew  of  the  book  is  not  that  of  Ezekiel  (592  ff.  B.C.),  nor 
even  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  (520-518  B.C.),  but  is  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  later  books  of  Chronicles  (300-250  B.C.), 
Ecclesiastes  (c,  250-200  B.C.)  and  Esther  (250-150  B.C.). 
This  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  new  words,  and  by 

1  Cf.  Adenev,  Ezra,  etc.,  354. 

2  Cf.  for  further  details  ia  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Esther, 
LOT,  478  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  121  f.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  130  ff.  McFad- 
yen, Introd.  310  ff .  Cornill,  Introd.  256  ff .  Gray,  Introd.  1 10  ff.  Moore, 
LOT,  133  ff.  HDB,  i.  773  ff.  (M'Clvmont) ;  iii.  614  (Woods).  EBi,  n. 
1400  ff.  (Noldeke);  2086  f.  (Moore).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Esther, 
espec.  Int.  Grit.  (Paton);  Expos.  B.  (Adeney);  Camb.  B.  (Streane); 
Cen.  B.  (Davies).  Bennett,  Primer,  etc..  111.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc., 
469  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  485  f.,  501.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  274  f. 
Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  39  f.,  471  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  473.  McFadyen, 
Hists.  338  ff.  Chevne,  Founders,  etc.,  359  ff.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.,  149  ff., 
cf  216  ff.  Hunter,  After  Exile,  i.  237  f.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  294. 
Fowler,  Hist.  Lit.,  etc.,  386  f. 


294      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

labored  and  inelegant  syntax ;  (h)  the  large  Aramaic  section 
of  the  book  (2  :  4:h-7  :  28)  is  in  the  Western  Aramaic  dialect 
spoken  near  Palestine.  Aramaic  was  not  employed  by  the 
Jews  in  the  Captivity  but  was  adopted  by  them  subsequent 
to  it.  This  hnguistic  feature  argues,  therefore,  for  a  date 
later  than  the  events  described.^  (c)  The  number  of  Persian 
words,  at  least  fifteen,  especially  in  the  Aramaic  part  of  the 
book  [cf.  above  (h)]  is  a  significant  fact.  It  seems  impossi- 
ble to  explain  such,  if  the  book  was  written  in  the  Babylonian 
period,  in  describing  for  instance  Babylonian  institutions 
(e.g.  3  :  2  ff.)  before  the  conquest  of  Cyrus  in  538  B.C.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  easy  to  account  for  them  if  the  book  is 
late,  as  Persian  words  are  found  in  Chronicles,  Ezra-Nehe- 
miah,  Song  of  Solomon,  etc. ;  and  (d)  the  presence  of  at  least 
three  Greek  words  points  to  a  time  later  than  the  conquests 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  333  ff.  b.c,  by  means  of  which 
Greek  influence  was  disseminated  through  Asia. 

Among  the  words  of  Persian  origin  are  those  translated,  '' dain- 
ties" (1:5,  etc.);  '^satraps,"  ''judges"  or  ''chief  soothsayers," 
"counsellors"  (3:2),  etc.  No  Persian  words,  it  is  claimed,  are 
found  in  Assyro-Babylonian  literature  before  the  time  of  Cyrus, 
except  the  name  of  the  god  Mithra. 

The  three  Greek  words  alluded  to  above  in  (d)  are  kitharis 
("harp,"  E.  V.  3  :  5,  7,  etc.) ;  psalterion  ("psaltery,"  E.  V.  3  :  5,  7, 
etc.) ;  sumphonia  ("dulcimer,"  A.  V.  3  :  5,  15).  It  is  maintained 
that  whatever  may  be  the  case  with  kitharis,  it  is  incredible  that 
psalterion  and  sumphonia  could  have  reached  Babylon  c.  550  b.c. 
(i.e.  the  time  of  the  historic  Daniel).  For  at  that  time  "the  arts 
and  inventions  of  civilized  life"  went  from  the  East  to  Greece  and 
not  from  Greece  Eastward.  Psalterion  was  first  used  by  Aristotle 
(384-322  B.C.),  and  sumphonia  was  first  used  by  Plato  (429-348 
B.C.).  "If  words  like  census,  centurion,  legion  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment bear  testimony  to  the  Romans  in  Palestine,  the  book  of 
Daniel  by  similar  reasoning  must  be  placed  in  the  Greek  age,"  ^ 

1  Attempts  have  been  made  in  recent  years  to  disprove  this  conclusion 
regarding  the  Aramaic  of  Dan.  It  is  claimed  that  it  is  "identical"  with 
that  "spoken  in  b.c.  500  from  Babylon  to  the  S.  of  Egypt."  For  proof, 
however,  that  the  Aramaic  of  this  book  differs  in  essential  respects  from 
the  Aramaic  of  Babylon  or  Egypt  in  the  time  of  the  Exile,  and  for  evidence 
in  favor  of  the  position  stated  in  the  text  above,  see  the  able  review  by 
Driver  in  the  latest  ed.  of  LOT,  503  f.,  514  f. ;  also  pp.  xxxiv  ff.  (in  the 
Addenda  section  of  LOT). 

2  Cf.  CHB,  Hex.  i.  p.  2. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  295 

The  conclusion  from  the  hnguistic  argument,  as  stated  by 
Driver,  is  that ' '  the  Persian  words  presuppose  a  period  after 
the  Persian  empire  had  been  well  established :  the  Greek 
words  demand,  the  Hebrew  supports,  and  the  Aramaic 
permits,  a  date  after  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  Alexander 
the  Great''  (332  B.C.). ' 

2nd.  The  religious  conceptions  of  the  book  strongly  favor 
a  late  date,  e.g,  the  angelology,  which  is  the  most  developed 
of  any  in  the  Old  Testament  (cf.  names  assigned  to  the 
angels,  8  :  16  ;  9  :  21 ;  10  :  13,  etc. ;  different  ranks,  10  :  13,  20, 
etc. ;  and  the  office  of  guardianship  of  different  countries 
attributed  to  them,  10:  13  ff.,  20  f.).  Also  the  doctrine  of 
resurrection  and  future  judgment  (e.g.  12 : 2  f.)  and  the 
Messianic  thought  (2  :  31-45  ;  7  :  2-27  ;  9  :  24-27  ;  12  :  1-3, 
10-13)  indicate  an  advance  beyond  all  other  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

" .  .  .  as  far  as  a  doctrinal  development  can  be  found  in  the  Old 
Testament  the  book  of  Daniel  comes  after  all  the  other  Old  Testa- 
ment writings,  and  approximates  most  closely  to  the  Jewish  litera- 
ture of  the  first  century  B.C."  ^ 

3rd.  The  evident  culminating  interest  of  the  hook  in  the 
relation  existing  between  the  Jews  and  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
170  ff.  B.c.,^  is  a  fact  of  great  importance  in  its  bearing  on 
the  date.  In  chapters  7-12  are  found  four  historical  reviews 
in  the  form  of  visions,  each  of  which  ends  with  a  description 
of  Antiochus  and  his  deahngs  with  the  Jews  (e.g.  7  :  8,  20-25  ; 
8 :  9-14,  23-25 ;  11 :  21-45  ;  12  :  1,  7,  11  f.).  While  the  time 
of  Antiochus  is  thus  dwelt  upon  with  more  or  less  detail,  the 
four  centuries  succeeding  the  age  of  the  historical  Daniel  are 
passed  over  with  only  brief  mention.  From  the  analogy 
of  all  other  Biblical  writings,  the  natural  inference  is  that 
the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  the  time  of  the  com- 
position of  this  book,  a  conclusion  which  is  strongly  supported 
by  the  previous  facts  considered. 

Another  confirmatory  point  in  this  connection  is  that  the  times 
subsequent  to  Antiochus  are  described  not  specifically,  ''but  only 

1  Cf.  LOT,  508.     Driver,  Dan.  Ixiii. 

2  Cf.  HDB,  i.  554a  (E.  L.  Curtis). 

3  Cf.  for  the  historical  outline  of  the  conflict  between  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  and  the  Jews,  pp.  315  fif.,  ii.  a. 


296      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

symbolize  the  general  Messianic  hope  of  Israel"  (cf.  2:44  f . ; 
7:  27;  12:lff.)-  This  harmonizes  with  authorship  in  the  time 
of  Antiochus.  If  it  be  maintained  that  the  detailed  descriptions  of 
Antiochus  are  predictions,  it  is  sufficient  to  reply  that  predictions 
of  this  character  are  without  analogy  in  other  parts  of  the  Bible. 
Prediction  is  not  ''inverted  history." 

4th.  From  the  standpoint  of  a  late  date,  the  anachronisms 
and  such  historical  inaccuracies  as  are  found  in  the  book, 
which  are  almost  impossible  to  explain  if  it  were  written  in 
the  time  of  the  historical  Daniel,  can  be  easily  accounted 
for :  e.g.  the  representation  of  the  Chaldeans  (1:4;  2:2, 
etc.)  as  a  caste  of  the  wise  men;  Belshazzar  described  in 
chap.  5  as  king  of  Babylon ;  Darius  the  Mede  as  Belshazzar's 
successor  (5  :  31-6  :  1  ff. ;  9:1;  11:1),  etc. 

In  the  time  of  the  historic  Daniel,  the  term  ''Chaldeans"  was  a 
national  designation  for  the  ruling  power  in  Babylonia.  It  was 
not  till  after  the  downfall  of  the  Babylonian  empire  that  it  came 
gradually  to  acquire  the  meaning  of  "magician."  According  to 
Sayce,  this  points  to  a  time  "when  a  Jewish  writer  could  assign  to  a 
Hebrew  word  a  signification  derived  from  its  Greek  equivalent." 
This  implies  an  age  "later  than  that  of  Alexander  the  Great."  .  .  . 
"  In  the  eyes  of  the  Assyriologist  the  use  of  the  word  Chaldean  in 
Daniel  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  date  of  the  work 
with  unerring  certainty."  ^ 

As  a  matter  of  history  Nabonidus  was  the  last  king  of  Babylon, 
and  Belshazzar  was  his  son.  Even  on  the  supposition  that  the 
latter  possibly  held  command  in  Babylon,  while  his  father  was  in 
the  field  in  charge  of  the  army,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  a  con- 
temporary writer  speaking  of  him  as  king  (cf .  especially  5  :  28, 
30,  which  seem  to  refer  to  him  as  sole  king).  Further,  Belshazzar 
was  not  the  son  of  Nebuchadrezzar  (cf.  statement  5:2,  11,  18, 
etc.)  even  by  descent,  as  his  father  Nabonidus  belonged  to  a 
different  family. 

Nabonidus,  the  last  king  of  Babylon,  was  succeeded  by  Cyrus  the 
Persian,  the  first  ruler  of  the  new  empire.  From  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  it  is  known  that  Cyrus  gained  possession  of  Babylon 
without  fighting  in  538  b.c.  The  account  in  Dan.  5  seems  to  be 
based  on  the  rebelHon  and  capture  of  Babylon  in  the  reign  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  (522-486  b.c).  The  conception  of  a  Median  kingdom 
succeeding  the  Babylonian  may  have  been  suggested  by  the  pre- 
dictions of  Isa.  13  :  17  ;    21 :  2 ;   Jer.  51 :  11,  28.     It  is  also  to  be 

1  Cf.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc.,  533-535. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  297 

noted  that  in  the  earlier  Greek  writers  the  term  *'Mede"  takes  the 
place  of  ''Persian." 

For  other  historical  inaccuracies  in  Daniel :  e.g.  a  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim  (1  :  1  f.),  and  Darius  described 
(9:1)  as  the  son  of  Ahasuerus  ( =  Xerxes),  whereas  he  was  the 
father  of  Xerxes ;  of.  Introds.  and  Comms.  on  these  verses. 

5th.  The  position  of  Daniel  in  the  Hebrew  Canon,  not  in  the 
second  division,  the  Prophets,  but  in  the  third,  the  Hagi- 
ographa,  harmonizes  with  the  late  origin  of  the  book. 

If  Daniel  were  a  product  of  the  Exile,  it  most  naturally  would 
have  found  its  place  in  the  second  division  of  the  Canon,  which 
was  probably  closed  c.  250  (or  200)  b.c.     See  p.  309,  v.  I. 

Another  fact  may  also  be  mentioned  here,  viz.  that  in  post- 
exihc  Hterature  there  is  no  trace  of  the  influence  of  Daniel  or  refer- 
ence to  its  existence,  but  it  is  referred  to  in  writings  after  the  Mac- 
cabean  struggle;  e.g.  the  Sibylline  Verses  iii.  388  fif.,  cf.  Dan. 
7 :  20,  24  (c.  140  b.c.)  ;  and  in  1  Mace.  2 :  59  f.,  cf.  Dan.  chaps.  3 
and  6  (c.  100  or  90  b.c). 

Another  reason  given  for  the  late  date  of  Daniel  is  the  absence 
of  the  name  of  this  hero  in  the  list  of  worthies  in  Ecclus.  xliv-1 
(c.  200-180  B.C.). 

Cf.  also  the  reference  to  the  ''books"  in  9  :  2  (from  which  Jere- 
miah is  quoted),  which  implies  the  existence  and  probably  the  close 
of  the  Prophetic  Canon  =  c.  250  (or  200)  B.C. 

6th.  The  fitting  character  of  the  message  of  the  hook  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccahean  struggle  lends  additional  support  to 
the  facts  already  considered.  In  every  crisis  in  the  history 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  messengers  and  teachers 
were  providentially  raised  up  to  encourage,  instruct  or  re- 
buke the  people  at  the  time  when  the  particular  need  arose. 
In  this  great  struggle  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus,  when  a  most 
determined  effort  was  made  by  this  king  to  destroy  the 
Jewish  religion,  the  need  of  a  message  of  this  character  is 
self-evident.  Such  the  book  of  Daniel  most  graphically  and 
appropriately  furnishes :  e.g.  the  lesson  of  fidelity  to  God  in 
view  of  heathen  allurements  and  intimidations  to  apostatize 
(temptations  which  exerted  a  tremendous  powder  at  that 
time),  which  was  taught  by  the  example  of  Daniel  and  his 
friends  (chaps.  1-6),  whose  lives  were  miraculously  pre- 
served ;  also  the  encouragement  of  a  speedy  termination  of 
the  conflict  to  be  followed  by  the  glorious  Messianic  age 


298     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

(e.g.  2  :  44  f . ;  7  :  27 ;  12  : 1  ff .),  after  the  analogy  of  prophetic 
encouragements  in  great  crises. 

"The  lessons  of  the  'fiery  furnace'  and  Hhe  lions'  den,'  chaps.  3 
and  6,  never  could  have  been  more  fitly  presented  than  when 
'came  there  forth  out  of  Israel  transgressors  of  the  law  and  per- 
suaded many,  saying,  Let  us  go  and  make  a  covenant  with  the 
nations  that  are  round  about  us'  (1  Mace.  1 :  11),  and  when  Antio- 
chus  commanded  the  worship  of  foreign  deities  on  pain  of  death 
(1  Mace.  1 :  41-50).  The  stories  of  the  humbhng  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (chap.  4)  and  the  fall  of  Belshazzar  (chap.  5)  would  also  be 
fraught  with  particular  consolation  when  Israel  was  oppressed  by 
the  heathen.  The  visions  (chaps.  7-12),  whatever  view  is  taken 
of  their  date,  are  universally  acknowledged  to  have  been  primarily 
designed  for  consolation  during  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes."  ^ 

From  the  facts  (a)  that  though  the  conflict  with  Antio- 
chus is  so  prominent,  no  mention  is  made  of  the  victories  of 
Judas  Maccabseus ;  nor  (b)  of  the  recovery  and  reconsecra- 
tion  of  the  Temple,  Dec.  165  B.C. ;  and  (c)  that  the  end  of  the 
conflict  is  predicted  {e.g.  7  :  25  ff. ;  8  :  25 ;  11 :  45),  it  seems 
clear  that  the  book  was  written  while  the  persecution  was  in 
progress.  The  date  accordingly  may  be  assigned  with 
probability  between  167  and  the  end  of  165  B.C. 

The  precise  date  depends  on  the  interpretation  of  8 :  14,  whether 
it  impHes  the  dedication  of  the  Temple  by  Judas  Maccabseus  in 
Dec.  165  B.C. ;  or  whether  it  is  a  prediction  of  that  event.  Cf.  p. 
320,  V.  e. 

In  harmony  also  with  the  late  origin  of  the  book  is  its  apoc- 
aljrptic  character,  a  form  of  hterature  which  reflects  a  period  of 
danger  and  persecution.  It  came  into  existence  during  the  later 
years  of  Judaism,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  outgrowth  of  the 
conviction  that  prophecy  in  Israel  had  ceased  (cf.  Ps.  74 : 9). 
Two  characteristics  of  it  need  to  be  noted,  viz.  (a)  its  use  of  symbols, 
and  (h)  the  element  of  artificiality  as  far  as  outward  form  and  stand- 
point are  concerned  :  i.e.  the  writer  does  not  speak  in  his  own  name, 
but  in  that  of  one  of  the  great  men  of  the  past,  and  from  his 
standpoint  to  the  actual  author's  own  day  (cf.  the  books  of 
Enoch,  Assumption  of  Moses,  etc.).  This  was  in  accordance  with 
the  literary  customs  of  the  age  in  which  these  writings  sprang  up. 
(Cf .  also  the  earlier  Hterature,  Deuteronomy,  cf .  p.  129  ;  the  docu- 
ment P,  cf.  p.  247;  and  later,  Ecclesiastes,  cf.  pp.  289  f.)  The 
symbolism  and  the  element  of  obscurity  (such  as  are  found  in 

1  Cf.  HDB,  i.  554  (E.  L.  Curtis). 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD  299 

Daniel)  are  due  to  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  in  which  these 
literary  productions  had  their  origin,  viz.  periods  of  danger,  in 
which  the  messages  were  expressed  in  a  manner  intelhgible  to  the 
initiated  but  not  to  others,  from  motives  of  prudence. 

It  seems  clear,  from  what  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  above 
conclusion  as  to  date  does  not  mihtate  against  the  element  of  true 
prediction  in  the  book.  It  contains  a  definite  promise  of  deliver- 
ance which  was  wonderfully  fulfilled  (cf .  7  :  25  f . ;  8  :  25  f . ; 
11:45  ff.),  —  a  prediction  which  originated  in  the  conflict  and 
crisis  of  this  great  struggle,  precisely  after  the  analogy  of  Isaiah's 
assurances  of  deliverance  from  the  power  of  Assyria  in  the  great 
issues  of  his  day  (cf.  Isa.  10 :  33,  etc.). 

The  conclusion  as  to  the  origin  and  character  of  Daniel  given 
above  ''doubtless  will  appear  to  some  to  destroy  its  religious  value 
and  render  it  unworthy  of  a  place  within  the  sacred  Canon.  No 
one,  however,  under  the  modern  view,  can  read  the  book  \\ithout 
being  taught  lessons  of  sublime  faith,  and  having  a  firmer  assur- 
ance of  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  book 
has  in  the  past  been  blessed  as  an  instrument  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
for  the  strengthening  of  the  Church,  and  interpreted  in  the  light 
of  its  real  origin,  this  ^\ill  continue  and  be  enhanced.  Great  diffi- 
culties in  receiving  its  lessons  will  be  removed,  and  the  Church  will 
be  spared  endless  profitless  discussion  and  exegesis  necessitated 
by  the  old  view."  ^ 

The  unity  of  Daniel  has  been  the  common  view  though  different 
theories  of  its  composite  character  have  been  advocated.  Cf. 
the  recent  conclusion  of  Kent  that  chaps.  1-6  belong  to  245-225 
B.C. ;  while  chaps.  7-12  alone  reflect  the  Maccabean  struggle  =  c. 
166  B.C.     Cf .  contra,  Gray.^  ^ 

1  Cf.  HDB,  i.  555a  (E.  L.  Curtis). 

2  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  33  ff. ;  cf.  ref.  to  Torrey's  view  in  LOT,  514. 
See  contra,  Gray,  Introd.  236  f. 

3  Cf.  for  further  details  in  reference  to  introduction,  etc.,  of  Daniel, 
LOT,  488  ff.  Bennett,  Introd.  224  ff.  Kautzsch,  LOT,  138  fif.,  203. 
McFadyen,  Introd.  316  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  382  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  233  ff. 
Moore,  LOT,  178  ff.  HDB,  i.  552  ff.  (E.  L.  Curtis) ;  iii.  614  (Woods) ; 
extra  vol.  714  f.  (Kautzsch).  EBi,  i.  1002  ff.  (Kamphausen) ;  ii.  2087 
(Moore).  Introds.  in  Comms.  on  Dan.,  espec.  Expos.  B.  (Farrar) ;  Camb. 
B.  (Driver);  Cen.  B.  (Charles).  Bevan,  Dan.  11  ff.  Bennett,  Primer, 
etc.,  114  f.  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc.,  497  ff.,  524  ff.  Kent,  Sermons, 
etc.,  33  ff.,  423  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  451  ff.,  501.  Kent,  Jew. 
People,  278  f.,  331  ff.  Riggs,  Jew.  People,  7  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  24- 
27,  503  f.  Porter,  Apoc.  Writers,  espec.  97  ff.,  cf.  79  ff.  Ryle,  Canon, 
etc.,  122,  131  f.,  145  ff.,  223  f.  Cornill,  Prophs.  Isr.  174  ff.  Cheyne, 
Founders,  etc.,  363  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  208,  292  f.  Fowler,  Hist. 
Lit.,  etc.,  382  f. 


X.  B.  Literature  of  the  Grecian  Period,  Chronologically 
Outlined,  332-165  b.c.  Prophetical  writings  =  Zechariah 
9-14 ;  Jonah.  Poetical  writings  =  Song  of  Solomon  ;  proverbs 
and  compilation  of  Proverbs;  psalms  and  compilation  of 
Psalms.  Miscellaneous  writings  =  Ecclesiastes ;  Esther  and 
DanieP 

SECTION  I,  332-c.  250  (200)  B.C. 

i.  The  period  332-c.  250  b.c.  No  Biblical  historical  records. 
Cf.  below,  n.  ii.  6. 

ii.  Chronological  and  historical  survey  of  the  first  part  of  the  Greek 
period,  332-c.  250  B.C. 

a.  The  events  determining  the  Greek  period  of  Old  Test,  history 
and  literature  are,  on  the  one  hand,  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  332  b.c.  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  vic- 
tory of  the  Jews  under  the  Maccabean  leaders  in  165  b.c,  by  which 
they  practically  gained  their  independence  from  Antiochus.  Some 
of  the  psalms  and  the  compilation  of  Pss.  90-150;  some  proverbs 
and  the  compilation  of  the  book  of  Proverbs  (possibly  Esther  also, 
see  p.  293),  may  date  from  the  Maccabean  period  =  165  ff.  b.c. 

h.  As  the  historical  books  of  the  0.  Test,  do  not  chronicle  any 
occurrences  after  the  year  432  b.c.  (cf.  Neh.  13  :  6),  it  will  be  neces- 
sary here,  as  in  connection  with  the  closing  century  of  the  Persian 
period,  cf.  pp.  268  f.,  273  f.,  to  furnish  an  historical  outline  of  the 
main  events  relating  to  the  condition  of  the  Jews  during  this  age,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  learned  from  the  Biblical  literature  available  and 
from  outside  history.  (For  the  bearing  of  Chronicles  on  this  period 
cf.  p.  305,  V.  g.) 

The  Persian  empire  came  to  an  end  by  the  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  who  defeated  Darius  in  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  b.c.  ; 
mastered  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine  (including  Jerusalem  prob- 
ably), and  Egypt,  333-332  b.c.  ;  and  who  in  the  following  year 
gained  a  final  victory  over  the  Persians  at  Arbela.  He  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  reign  —  his  death  occurred  in  324-323  b.c.  —  in 

1  For  other  literary  productions  assigned  to  this  period  by  different 
scholars,  see  pp.  302  f.,  iii.  2.  6 ;  306  ff.,  iii.  7.  8  ;  318,  iii.  3 ;  322,  iii.  5.  6. 

300 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     301 

extending  his  empire,  especially  in  the  East.  Zech.  9:1-8  may 
possibly  reflect  the  progress  of  his  invasion  toward  Egypt  in  332 
B.C.  The  reference  in  Josephus  (Ant.  xi.  8,  §§  3  ff.)  to  the  king's 
visit  to  Jerusalem  is  not  regarded  as  trustworthy.  The  political 
fortunes  of  the  Jews  under  Alexander  probably  remained  the  same 
as  under  their  Persian  masters. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  there  followed  a  period  of  conflict 
between  his  generals,  four  striving,  as  far  as  Asia  and  Egypt  were 
concerned,  for  the  mastery,  viz.  Antigonus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus 
and  Seleucus,  the  final  result  of  which  was  the  supremacy  of 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  and  Seleucus  in  northern  Syria  and  the  rest  of 
Asia.  During  the  next  century  and  more,  in  the  different  wars 
between  these  two  rival  powers,  the  Jews  undoubtedly  suffered 
much,  as  Palestine  lay  between  the  two  kingdoms.  In  320  b.c. 
(or  possibly  later,  as  some  think,  e.g.  312  b.c,  or  301  b.c.)  Ptolemy 

I  attacked  Palestine  and  according  to  Josephus  (Ant.  xii.  1 ;  c. 
Ap.  1  :  22)  captured  Jerusalem.  Many  Jews  and  Samaritans  were 
carried  off  to  Egj'pt  at  this  time.  During  the  remainder  of  this 
century  {i.e.  up  to  300  b.c),  the  control  of  Palestine  by  Egypt  was 
wrested  from  that  power  (with  the  exception  of  a  few  years)  by 
Antigonus  of  Phrygia.  From  301  b.c  (  =  the  battle  of  Ipsus) 
throughout  the  following  century,  with  but  few  exceptions,  Pales- 
tine was  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ptolemies,  though  the  Seleu- 
cidae  never  ceased  to  claim  it.  Especially  during  the  years  of 
conflict  between  these  powers,  264-248  b.c,  the  Jews  must  have 
suffered  severely.     These  years  are  probably  summarized  in  Dan. 

II  :  7-9.  These  hostile  powers  may  also  be  referred  to  in  Zech. 
10  :  10  f.,  i.e.  Egypt,  and  Assyria  ( =  Sjoia ;  cf.  Ezra  6  :  22,  where 
Assyria  =  Persia;    and  Lam.  5:6  where  it  =  Babylonia). 

Two  facts  of  importance  during  this  period  need  to  be  noted : 
(a)  one  was  that  Egypt  became  an  attractive  country  to  the  Jews. 
Many  settled  there  and  became  prosperous  and  influential. 
Alexandria  especially  had  a  large  Je^vish  population.  The  rule 
of  the  Ptolemies  was  on  the  whole  a  tolerant  one,  and  the  Jews 
preferred  it  to  that  of  the  Seleucidse.  (6)  The  other  fact  was  the 
influence  of  Greek  customs  and  thought.  The  Greeks  followed 
in  the  train  of  Alexander's  conquests  and  settled  along  the  Syrian 
coast.  The  Jews  of  Judea  were  surrounded  by  cities,  which  were 
largely  Greek  in  population.  This  influence  eventually  affected 
them  (cf.  especially  in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  c.  170  ff. 
B.C.  cf.  pp.  315  f.),  and  possibly  it  is  reflected  in  the  book  of  Eccle- 
siastes. 

For  the  leading  events  in  the  relation  between  Egypt  and  Syria 
during  this  period,  cf.  under  Dan.  11  (see  pp.  320  f.,  v.  g.). 

For  the  remaining  historical  outhne  of  the  Greek  period  relating 


302      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

to  the  fortunes  of  the  Jews  during  the  ascendency  of  the  Seleucidse, 
of.  pp.  315  ff.,  ii.  a} 

iii.   Literary  productions,  332-c.  250  (200)  B.C. 

1.  Prophetic  messages  of  Zechariah,  chaps.  9-14.     c.  300-250  (?) 

B.C. 

Chap.    9.     Jehovah's   judgment   upon    Syria,    Phoenicia    and 

PhiHstia,  etc. 
10.     Jehovah  the  source  of  help  to  His  people,  etc. 
11 :  1-17  +  13  :  7-9.     Symbolical   representation  of  the 

prophet  as  ruler,  etc. 
12 :  1-13  :  6.     Besieged  Jerusalem  relieved  and  her  foes 

destroyed,  etc. 
14.     The  escape  of  those  left  in  Jerusalem,  etc. 

2.  Other  prophetic  literature  possibly  contemporary. 

a.  Isa.  19  :  16-25  is  assigned  by  Cheyne  to  the  last  years  of  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  I  (322-285  b.c.).^ 

3.  Psalms  84-89  =  a  miscellaneous  appendix  to  Pss.  42-83. 
c.300(?)  B.C. 

4.  The  Song  of  Solomon  (Canticles),     c.  300  (?)  B.C. 

Chap.  1 :  2-8.  Praise  of  the  bridegroom  by  the  bride,  etc. 

1 :  9-2  :  7.  Each  sings  the  praises  of  the  other,  etc. 

2  :  8-17.  Love  in  the  springtime. 

3  :  1-5.  The  bride's  dream. 

3  :  6-11.  The  bridegroom's  procession. 

4  :  1-5  :  1.  The  bride's  charms. 

5  :  2-6  :  3.  The  bridegroom's  beauty. 

6  :  4-13.  Praise  given  to  the  bride. 

7  :  1-10.  The  -bride  praised  in  the  sword  dance. 
7:11-8:4.  Her  longing. 

8  :  5-7.  The  incomparable  power  of  love. 

8  :  8-10.       The  bride's  proud  reply  to  her  brothers. 
8  :  11-12,  13-14.     The  two  vineyards;  the  conclusion. 

5.  The  prophetic  story  of  Jonah,     c.  300  (?)  B.C. 

Chap.  1.     Jonah  seeks  to  escape  from  his  mission ;  his  fate. 

2.     The  prophetic  prayer  of  thanksgiving ;  his  dehverance. 

1  Cf .  further  on  the  historical  background  of  the  Greek  period,  Kent, 
Jew.  People,  271  ff.,  284  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  413  ff.  G.  A.  Smith,  Book  of 
XII,  ii.  439  ff.  HDB,  i.  60  f. ;  105  (Moss) ;  ii.  260  f.  (Conybeare) ;  515b 
(Barnes) ;  5876  (Conder) ;  iv.  170  f.  (Moss) ;  432  f.  (Macpherson).  EBi, 
i.  112  (Woodhouse) ;  ii.  1247  f.  (W.  Max  Miiller) ;  2010  (Jiihcher  and 
Cheyne) ;  2259  f .  (Guthe) ;  2426  (G.  A.  Smith) ;  iii.  3972  f .  (anonymous) ; 
iv.  4347  ff.  (Woodhouse).  Sanders,  etc.,  Prophs.  ii.  324  ff.  Driver,  Dan. 
xxxiii  ff.,  164  ff.  Wade,  O.  T.  Hist.  487  ff.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs.  279 
ff.,  etc. 

2  Cf.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  105.     Cheyne,  Isa.  (SBOT),  98  f.,  189  f. 
See  also  refs.  p.  97,  n.  ^  of  this  volume. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF    THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     303 

3.  The  prophet's  mission  to  Nineveh;   its  success. 

4.  The  prophet's  displeasure ;  the  divine  lesson,  etc. 

6.  The  books  of  Chronicles  and  the  compilation  of  Ezra-Nehemiah. 
c.  300-250  B.C. 

1  Chr.  1-9.     Genealogical  lists. 

10-29  4-  2  Chr.     (See  outline  of   history   United   and 
Divided  Kingdoms,  pp.  74-84,  133-169.)  ^ 

iv.  Composition  of  the  literary  productions  ( +  7iotes  on  the  Song  of 
Solomon),  332  ff.  b.c. 

a.  The  suggestion,  originally  made  by  Ewald,  that  Zech.  13  :  7-9 
forms  the  conclusion  of  chap.  11  has  been  accepted  by  most  scholars 
for  the  following  reasons  :  (a)  it  is  disconnected  as  it  stands  with 
the  sections  preceding  and  following  it ;  (6)  it  contains  the  same 
figure  as  that  of  chap.  11,  and  ending  with  a  promise  forms  a 
fitting  conclusion  to  11 :  15-17 ;  and  (c)  it  is  presupposed  in  chap. 
12 : 9  ff. 

h.  Nowack,  who  holds  the  theory  of  the  composite  authorship 
of  Zech.  9-14,  considers ;  (a)  9  : 1-11 :  3  to  be  the  work  of  one  author, 
after  c.  323  b.c.  ;  (b)  11 :  4-17  +  13  :  7-9  =  another  independent 
division,  post-exilic ;  (c)  12  :  1-13  :  6  =  another  independent  sec- 
tion, late  post-exiHc;  and  (d)  chap.  14,  also  separate,  later 
post-exiHc.     Cf.  HDB,  iv.  968  f.  (Nowack). 

jNIitchell's  viewis  somewhat  similar,  viz.  ''the  introductory  verses 
(9 :  1-10)  are  a  distinct  prophecy  written  soon  after  the  battle  of 
Issus  (333  B.C.).  This  was  made  the  text  for  a  more  extended  utter- 
ance (9:11-11:3)  which  dates  from  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  III 
(247-222  B.C.).  A  third  writer,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Raphia 
(217  B.C.),  supplemented  this  combined  work  by  a  pessimistic  pic- 
ture (11 :  4-17  with  13  :  7-9)  of  the  situation  as  he  saw  it.  About 
the  same  time  a  fourth  with  apocalyptic  tendencies  undertook  to 
present  the  whole  subject  in  a  more  optimistic  fight,  the  result 
being  12 : 1-13  :  6  and  14."     Cf.  his  Zech.  258  f. 

c.  Some  scholars  think  that  Zech.  10  :  1-2  is  practically  an  inde- 
pendent part,  having  no  logical  connection  with  the  preceding 
chapter  or  the  following  section.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  It  is  to  be  noticed  in  Pss.  84-89  that  the  divine  name  Jehovah 
prevails  over  that  of  God  (  =  Hebr.  ''Elohim").     Cf.  pp.  226  f.  (d). 

e.  By  many  scholars  Ps.  84  is  classified  Tsith  the  "  Pilgrim 
psalms,"  viz.  Pss.  120-134. 

/.  The  doxology  Ps.  89 :  52  forms  the  conclusion  of  book  iii  of 
the  Psalter,  and  is  not  a  part  of  the  psalm.  It  was  added  probably 
by  the  compiler  of  the  appended  collection,  Pss.  84-89. 

^  For  the  remainder  of  the  literary  productions  of  the  period  332-c.  250 
(200)  B.C.  see  pp.  306-308,  310-311. 


304      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

g.  The  theory  of  interpretation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  followed 
in  the  analysis  (p.  302)  is  that  the  book  is  a  collection  of  songs, 
loosely  connected,  which  were  used  at  marriage  festivals  in  some 
one  or  possibly  more  of  the  Hebrew  villages.  The  bridegroom  and 
bride  figure  as  Solomon  and  the  Shulammite.  This  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  modern  custom  in  Syria  of  the  bridegroom  and  bride 
playing  the  part  of  king  and  queen,  and  receiving  the  homage  of 
their  neighbors  for  seven  days  after  marriage ;  hence  the  name  the 
''king's  week."  Scholars  who  accept  this  standpoint  of  interpreta- 
tion differ  somewhat  in  their  division  of  the  songs.  The  outHne 
given  above  is  adopted  practically  from  McFadyen,  Introd.  287. 
This  view  of  the  book  is  advocated  especially  by  Budde,  but  is 
finding  an  increasing  number  of  adherents  among  modern  scholars. 
Cf.  Cornill,  McFadyen,  Martin  (Cen.  B.),  Gray,  Moore,  Cheyne 
(EBi,  i.  688  if.),  Kent,  Songs,  etc.;  etc. 

Cf .  the  view  that  it  is  not  wedded  love  which  is  celebrated  in  the 
poems  but  that  of  an  ardent  lover ;  Schmidt,  Poets,  224  ff . ; 
Gordon,  Poets,  etc.,  317  f. 

For  the  analysis  of  the  book  according  to  ''the  shepherd  hy- 
pothesis "  (i.e.  a  dramatic  poem  with  three  leading  characters), 
which  has  found  favor  with  a  large  number  of  modern  scholars, 
see  Ap.  B.,  pp.  330  ff. 

h.  The  psalm  in  Jonah  2  is  made  up  of  selections  from  other 
psalms,  etc.,  and  may  be  a  later  insertion.     See  Comms.  in  loc. 

i.  The  genealogical  lists  in  1  Chr.  1-9  are  based  freely  on  sec- 
tions in  Gen.-Kings  ( =  JEDP),  but  much  has  no  parallel  in  the 
earlier  books,  e.g.  2:18-55;  3:17-24;  4:1-23  (mostly),  25-27, 
34-^3;  5  (as  a  whole);  6:4-15,  20-53,  61-65;  7-9  (mostly;  cf. 
9: 1-17  with  Neh.  11 :  3-24).  This  material  pecuKar  to  the  sec- 
tion (i.e.  Ch.)  may  have  been  derived  to  some  extent  from  earlier 
sources  (cf.  5:17;  9:1,  e.g.  2:25-33,  42-45,  49;  4:1-20,  etc.; 
6  :  5-15 ;  7  :  14-19,  216-24),  and  some  of  it  may  have  been  added 
later  to  the  book  (e.g.  chap.  8  =  a  variant  of  7 :  6-12,  Kittel's 
view).     Cf.  further  Comms.  and  Introds.  in  loc. 

v.   Chronological  notes. 

a.  Zech.  9-14  are  placed  first  among  the  literary  products  of  the 
Greek  period,  on  the  supposition  that  these  chapters  reflect  in 
measure  the  struggles  of  that  time  and  the  feelings  resulting,  and 
so  serve  to  some  extent  as  a  background  for  the  age. 

h.  While  the  references  in  Zech.  9 :  1  ff.  might  well  be  to  some 
invasion  in  pre-exilic  times  {e.g.  by  Assjoia),  they  are  equally 
appropriate  to  the  days  of  Alexander  in  332  b.c,  or  the  conditions 
in  succeeding  years  connected  with  the  wars  between  his  generals 
(see  p.  301,  ii.  6.).     This  view  is  strengthened  by  (a)  reference  in 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     305 

vss.  13  ff.  to  the  Greeks ;  (h)  the  apocalyptic  character  of  the  de- 
scription ;  and  (c)  the  exultation  over  the  slaughter  of  the  foe  (vs. 
15),  which  would  be  in  keeping  with  the  pohtical  weakness  in  Judea 
subsequent  to  Alexander.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

c.  The  section  10 :  3  ff.  harmonizes  with  the  Greek  age :  e.g. 
the  mention  of  the  Jewish  exiles  in  Assyria  ( =  Syria)  and  Egypt 
(vss.  10  f.)  answers  well  the  condition  following  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Ptolemy  1  in  320  b.c.  (p.  301),  when  many  Jews  went 
to  Egypt  and  others  were  scattered  in  Syria,  and  at  a  time  before 
they  were  granted  the  rights  of  citizenship  in  those  countries. 

d.  The  allusions  in  11 :  1-3  are  claimed  to  harmonize  with  some 
of  the  invasions  of  Syria  by  the  Ptolemies.  In  vss.  4  ff.  while  the 
language  points  to  a  late  date,  there  are  no  definite  historical  refer- 
ences. Possibly  the  description  is  a  symbolical  representation  of 
what  had  already  taken  place,  not  a  prediction.  Cf.  Introds. 
and  Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  The  occasion  of  12  :  1  ff.  is  apparently  different  from  that  of  the 
previous  chaps.  It  is  a  gathering  of  nations  against  Jerusalem, — 
Judah  being  confederate  with  these  hostile  powers.  Undoubtedly 
this  refers  to  some  temporary  occasion  of  hostility  on  the  part  of 
the  country  against  the  city.  The  exact  date  seems  impossible 
to  determine.  This  spirit  may  have  been  an  outgrowth  of  jealousy 
in  post-exiUc  days  due  to  the  prominence  of  the  city  as  containing 
the  Temple.     The  allusions  in  13 :  1  ff.  are  obscure. 

/.  The  evidence  in  chap.  14  favors  a  late  date :  e.g.  (a)  the  apoc- 
alyptic character  of  the  description  (cf.  Ezek.  38  f.) ;  (6)  the 
emphasis  on  ceremonial  details  (vss.  16  ff.) ;  and  (c)  the  language. 
Note  also  in  vs.  5  the  expression  "Uzziah  king  of  Judah,''  which 
''rather  impHes  that  the  dynasty  is  past."  Cf.  Comms.  and 
Introds.  in  loc. 

g.  It  is  the  view  now  commonly  held  by  scholars  that  the  work 
of  the  Chronicler  bears  an  important  relation  to  the  period  follow- 
ing the  reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  {i.e.  the  late  Persian  and 
early  Greek  times,  432  ff.  B.C.).  For  in  the  historical  reviews 
(more  especially  in  Chr.),  i.e.  in  the  Ch.  portions,  the  spirit  and 
standpoint  of  this  later  age  are  reflected  in  the  judgments  and 
interpretations  recorded  and  in  the  ritualistic  details  given.  This 
shows  how  firmly  the  ideas  introduced  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  had 
become  established  in  the  thought  and  life  of  the  Jewish  community. 
These  hooks  thus  serve  as  valuable  indirect  sources  of  inforfuation  of 
this  time,  by  exhibiting  the  spirit  of  strict  Judaism  (from  which  its 
history  is  viewed),  and  the  opposition  to  foreign  influences  which 
prevailed  subsequent  to  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 

h.  No  special  mention  is  made  of  the  captivity  of  the  Reu- 
benites,  etc.  (1  Chr.  5  :  25  f.),  either  in  the  deportation  of  a  portion 


306      AX   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT 

of  the  Northern  Kingdom  in  734  b.c.  (2  Ki.  15 :  29) ;  or  in  the 
one  which  took  place  after  the  downfall  of  Samaria,  722-21  b.c. 
(2  Ki.  17  : 1-6). 


SECTION  I  (cont'd),  332-c.  250  (200)   B.C. 

i-ii  (cont'd).  For  Biblical  records  and  historical  survey  of  this 
period,  see  pp.  300  f.,  i-ii. 

iii  (cont'd).     Literary  productions^  332-c.  250  (200)  b.c. 

7.  Different  sections  and  verses  in  'prophetic  literature  possi- 
bly added  in  exilic  and  post-exilic  times;  586  to  300  or  possibly 
250  B.C. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  of  such  additions  assigned 
by  different  scholars  :  — 

a.  In  Amos. 

(a)  9  :  8-15.     Prediction  of  the  restoration  of  Israel  and  Judah.^ 

b.  In  Hosea. 

(a)  Chap.  14(?).     Repentance  and  restoration  of  Israel.* 

c.  In  Isaiah. 

(a)  11 :  10-16.     Restoration  and  harmony  of  Judah  and  Israel. 

(b)  12  :  1-6.     Song  of  thanksgiving  of  the  restored  nation. 

(c)  13  :  1-14  :  23.  Babylon's  downfall  and  Israel's  restoration. 
Cf.  pp.  178  f.,  6. ;  195,  ii.  1.  6. 

(d)  19 :  16-25  (in  whole  or  part).  Egypt's  changed  religious 
attitude  towards  Jehovah.^ 

(e)  21 :  1-10.  Vision  of  Babylon's  destruction.  Cf.  pp.  177  f., 
a. ;  195,  ii.  1.  a. 

(J)  23  :  15-18.     Prediction  of  Tyre's  future  restoration."* 
(g)  24-27.     Jehovah's  judgment  upon  the  world,  etc*.     Cf.  pp. 
220  ff. ;  269,  ii.  1. 

(h)  29:16-24  (or  18-24)?      Prediction  of  the  Messianic  age. 

1  For  other  vss.  which  are  considered  by  different  authorities  later 
additions  to  Amos  {e.g.  1 :  11  f. ;  2  : 4  f. ;  4  :  13 ;  5  :  8  f.,  etc.) ;  see  p.  142, 
iii.  c.  d. 

2  For  other  vss.  which  some  scholars  regard  as  later  additions  to  Hosea 
{e.g.  1:7;  1 :  10-2  :  1(?) ;  3:5;  4  :  15,  etc.) ;  see  pp.  143,  iii.  e.  /. ;  145, 
iii.  g. 

3  Isa.  19 : 1-15  is  also  taken  as  a  later  addition  by  some  scholars.  Cf . 
p.  97,  n.  K 

*  Isa.  23  :  1-14  is  assigned  also  to  a  late  date  by  some  authorities.  Cf. 
p.  95,  n.  1. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD         307 

(0  30:  18-26  (27-33)?  Blessings  of  the  faithful  in  the  ideal 
future. 

0)  Chap.  33.     An  appeal  to  Jehovah  against  an  oppressor,  etc. 

(k)  34-35.  Edom's  punishment  and  Israel's  glorious  future. 
Cf .  pp.  215  ff. ;  264,  iv.  4. 

In  addition  to  the  above  sections  in  Isaiah,  more  commonly 
regarded  as  exihc  or  post-exilic  in  origin,  the  follo^ving  are  among 
the  parts  also  considered  as  such  by  a  number  of  recent  scholars 
{e.g.  Cheyne,  Gray,  Kent,  etc.). 

(1)  2:2-4  (//  Mic.  4:1-3).  Prediction  of  Jerusalem's  future 
prominence. 

(m)  4  :  2-6.     A  description  of  purified  Jerusalem. 

(n)  9  :  2-7.     The  ideal  (Messianic)  king. 

(o)  11  :  1-9.     The  ideal  (Messianic)  king  and  kingdom. 

Ip)  21 :  11-17.     Distress  for  Edom,  etc. 

(q)  Chap.  32  (in  whole  or  part) .  Description  of  the  ideal  future, 
etc. 

d.  In  Micah. 

(a)  7  :  7-20.     The  nation's  hope  of  restoration,  etc. 
The  following  parts  of  Micah  are  also  considered  late  by  many 
modern  scholars. 

(5)  4  : 1-3  (//  Isa.  2  :  2-4).     Cf.  above  under  Isaiah,  c.  {I). 

(c)  Chaps.  4  :  4-5  :  15  (in  whole  or  part).  Distress  and  deliver- 
ance of  Jerusalem.^ 

e.  In  Zephaniah. 

(a)  2 :  8-11.  Jehovah's  judgment  on  Moab  and  Ammon. 

(h)  3  :  9-10.  Jehovah  to  be  worshipped  by  the  nations. 

(c)  3 :  14-20.  Jehovah  praised  as  the  source  of  protection  and 
restoration. 

/.  In  Jeremiah. 

(a)  3 :  16-18  (or  14-18).  The  restoration  and  ideal  condition 
of  Judah  and  Israel. 

(6)  10 :  1-16.  A  warning  against  idolatry,  etc.  Cf .  pp.  180  f .  d. ; 
196,  ii.  3. 

(c)  17  :  19-27.     An  exhortation  to  keep  the  Sabbath,  etc. 

(d)  19  :  3-9,  11?>-13?     Judgment  upon  Jerusalem. 

(e)  Chap.  25  (in  part).  Nebuchadrezzar  as  Jehovah's  instru- 
ment of  judgment. 

(/)  29  :  16-20.  Prediction  of  judgment  upon  the  king  of  Judah, 
etc. 

1  For  the  view  that  the  most  of  Mic.  4  f.  belongs  to  later  times,  cf. 
reference  pp.  153  f.,  v.  m. 


308      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

(g)  30-33  (in  part).     Punishment  and  restoration. 
(h)  46-49  (in  part).     Messages  concerning  foreign  nations. 
(i)  50  : 1-51 :  58.     A  prediction  of  Babylon's  destruction,  etc., 
cf.  pp.  179  f.,  c;  195,  ii.  1.  c} 

g.  In  Nahum. 

(a)  1:2-2:2  (in  the  main).  Jehovah's  judgment  upon  his 
enemies,  etc. 

h.  In  Habakkuk. 

(a)  2  :  12-14.     Judgment  pronounced  upon  oppression. 

(6)  Chap.  3.  Jehovah's  manifestation  of  Himself  for  judg- 
ment. 

8.  The  completion  and  recognition  of  the  Second  ( =  Prophetic) 
Canon,  300-250  (or  200)  B.C. 

This  Prophetic  Canon  was  made  up  of  two  parts  :  — 

a.  The  Former  Prophets  =  Joshua ;  Judges ;  1-2  Samuel ; 
and  1-2  Kings. 

b.  The  Latter  Prophets  =  Isaiah ;  Jeremiah  ;  Ezekiel ;  and  the 
Twelve  Prophets  (  =  Hosea ;  Joel ;  Amos ;  Obadiah ;  Jonah ; 
Micah;  Nahum;  Habakkuk;  Zephaniah;  Haggai;  Zechariah; 
and  Malachi.)  ^ 

V.  (cont'd).     Chronological  notes. 

i.  For  discussion  of  the  various  prophetical  verses  and  sections 
indicated  above  (pp.  306  ff.)  cf .  in  addition  to  the  notes  in  this  vol- 
ume in  connection  with  the  individual  passages,  the  different 
Introds.  and  Comms. 

For  the  explanation  of  these  additions  to  the  original  prophecies, 
cf.  pp.  87  f.,  e. 

j.  According  to  Kautzsch  a  not  inconsiderable  proportion  of  the 
additions  to  the  prophetic  writings  may  be  as  late  as  the  3rd  or  even 
2nd  century  b.c.^ 

k.  The  time  of  the  completion  of  the  book  of  Isaiah  in  its  present 

1  While  all  scholars  to-day  are  practically  agreed  that  there  are  many 
insertions  of  different  kinds  in  Jeremiah,  there  is  considerable  variation 
in  the  views  held  as  to  the  extent  of  this  additional  material.  Besides 
the  sections  indicated  above  probably  others  should  be  included.  See 
further  Comms.,  Introds.  and  Bible  Diets,  on  Jeremiah.  See  also  p.  Ill, 
8.  c.     Cf.  Bennett,  Introd.  (5th  ed.),  473,  Ap.  D. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  some  scholars  hold  that  the  text  of  Jer.  was  sub- 
ject to  insertions  until  as  late  as  the  2nd  cen.  B.C.  Cf.  Cornill,  Introd. 
313.     Gray,  Introd.  197. 

2  For  the  remainder  of  the  literary  productions  of  the  period  332-c.  250 
(200)  B.C.,  see  pp.  310  f. 

,   3  Cf .  Kautzsch,  LOT,  138,  199.     HDB,  extra  vol.  7086  (  =  hst  of  addi- 
tions, Kautzsch). 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     309 

form  must  be  subsequent  to  340-332  b.c.  (  =  the  date  of  Isa.  24-27) . 
Hence  330-250  b.c.  (Bennett) ;  300-200  b.c.  (Whitehouse) ;  250- 
220  B.C.  (Cheyne) ;  before  200  b.c.  (Skinner) ;  c.  180  b.c.  (Gray), 
ete.i 

L  In  reference  to  the  formation  of  the  Prophetic  Canon,  the 
following  facts  may  be  noted :  (a)  the  distinctively  prophetic 
books  were  regarded  with  growing  respect  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  in  586  b.c,  since  by  that  event  the  truth  of  their  mes- 
sages prior  to  that  date  were  substantiated.  Cf .  appeals  to  proph- 
ecy in  Zech.  1:4;  7:7,  12.  (6)  The  historical  writings  Joshua- 
Kings,  re\'iewing  the  past  history  of  Israel  from  the  standpoint  of 
Deut.,  and  in  the  prophetic  spirit,  would  naturally  share  in  this 
esteem,  (c)  As  the  Law  at  first  overshadowed  the  other  existing 
writings,  the  development  of  the  canonical  authority  of  the 
Prophets  must  have  been  subsequent  to  400  b.c.  (d)  In  Ecclus. 
(c.  200-180  B.C.),  especially  in  chaps.  44-50,  allusions  are  made  to 
events  as  they  occur  (in  order)  in  the  Law,  the  Former  Prophets, 
and  also  reference  to  Isaiah  as  a  whole,  Jer.,  Ezek.  and  the  Twelve 
Prophets  (cf.  below,  n.  m),  which  imphes  that  they  were  recog- 
nized as  sacred  books ;  i.e.  in  the  beginning  of  the  2nd  century  b.c. 
in  addition  to  the  Law,  the  books  forming  the  second  Canon  (also 
other  0.  Test,  books  cited  in  Ecclus.)  were  recognized  as  sacred, 
(e)  In  Dan.,  c.  167-165  b.c,  in  9  :  2  there  is  a  reference  to  Jeremiah's 
prophecy  (=  25: 11  f.)  under  the  designation  of  ''the  books"  = 
the  prophetic  writings.  And  (J)  in  the  Greek  prologue  of  Ecclus., 
c.  130  B.C.,  the  Prophets  are  referred  to  as  the  2nd  division  of  the 
BibUcal  writings.^  In  view  of  these  facts  the  recognition  of  this 
Canon  is  generally  dated  no  later  than  200  b.c^ 

m.  As  the  12  Minor  Prophets  are  referred  to  in  Ecclus.  49 :  10 
by  the  single  title  ''the  Twelve  Prophets,"  it  is  generally  supposed 
that  at  one  time  they  existed  as  a  separate  and  independent  collec- 
tion. The  editor  who  compiled  them  seems  to  have  added  the 
headings  of  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Micah  and  also  the  title  to  the  last 
three  groups:  "The  burden  of  the  word  of  Jehovah"  (Zech. 
9:1;  12  :  1  and  Mai.  1:1),  irrespective  of  their  authorship.  These 
last  three  sections  by  some  are  regarded  as  appendices  to  an  original 

1  Cf.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  78.  Whitehouse,  Isa.  i.  71 ;  EBi,  ii.  2207 
(Cheyne) ;  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  xviii  ff.,  xxix ;  Skinner,  Isa.  i.  p.  Ixxiii. 
Gray,  Isa.  i.  pp.  hi,  Ivi  f. 

2  Note  also  the  conviction  in  the  post-exiUc  community  that  the  period 
of  prophetic  revelation  was  closed  (contrast  Mai.  4:5  f . ;  Zech.  13 :  3 
with  the  promise  of  a  succession  of  prophets  in  Deut.  18:  18).  This 
consciousness  would  tend  to  enhance  the  value  of  the  prophetic  wTitings 
of  the  past  and  lead  to  their  preservation.  Cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  0.  T.  Jew. 
Church  2,  158  ff. 

3  Cf .  further  on  the  Canon  refs.  to  authorities,  p.  325,  n.  i. 


310      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

collection;   e.g.  G.  A.  Smith,  who  dates  the  original  book  before 
300  B.C.,  and  the  2nd  edition  towards  250  b.c.^ 


SECTION  I   (cont'd),  332-c.  250  (200)   B.C. 

i-ii  (cont'd).  For  Biblical  records  and  historical  survey  of  this 
period,  see  pp.  300  f.,  i-ii. 

iii  (cont'd).     Literary  productions,  332-c.  250  (200)  b.c. 
9.  Compilation  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,     c.  300-250  (?)  b.c. 
a.  Chaps.  1-9,  "The  Praise  of  Wisdom.''     c.  300-250  (?)  b.c. 
Chap.    1 :  1-6,  7.     The  prologue  =  the  purpose  of  the  book. 

1 :  8-33.     Warning  against  association  with  thieves  and 
murderers,  etc. 

2.  Blessings  resulting  from  the  choice  of  Wisdom,  etc. 

3.  Wisdom's  counsel  to  serve  God  as  a  condition  of 

prosperity,  etc. 

4.  The  writer  cites  his  experience  to  enforce  his  teaching, 

etc. 

5.  Warning    against    impure     conduct     (''the    strange 

woman"). 

6.  Warning  against  becoming  surety,  etc. 

7.  Value  of  Wisdom  as  a  protection  from  ''the  strange 

woman." 

8.  Wisdom's  high  character  and  office  described,  etc. 

9.  The  invitation  of  Wisdom,  etc. 

6.  Chaps.  10  :  1-22  :  16.  Solomonic  collection.  9th  (?) ;  8th  (?) 
or  7th  (?)  centuries  b.c.  ;  or  430-350  (?)  b.c. 

c.  Prov.  22 :  17-24 :  22  and  24 :  23-34,  Sayings  of  the  wise,  c. 
615  (?)  B.C.  or  c.  350-300  (?)  b.c. 

Chap.   22  :  17-21.     An  invitation  to  heed  the  words  of  the  wise, 

etc. 
22:22-24:22.     "The  words  of  the  wise"   which  are 

commended. 
24  :  23-34.     Additional  "  sajdngs  of  the  wise." 

d.  Chaps.  25-29.  The  Hezekiah  collection,  c.  719(?)ff.  b.c. 
or  430-300  ( ?)  b.c. 

e.  Chaps.  30-31.  Appendices  to  the  book  of  Proverbs,  c.  250- 
200  (?)  B.C. 

Chap.  30.  The  words  of  Agur  —  one's  inability  to  compre- 
hend God,  etc.  The  "  numerical "  proverbs  (vss. 
15-31). 

1  Cf.  G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of  XII,  i.  pp.  4  f.  Rvle,  Canon,  etc.,  115  f., 
119  ff.  Wildeboer,  Canon,  etc.,  115  ff.  Cornill,  Introd.  376-381.  Buhl, 
Canon,  etc.,  9  fit. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     311 

31 :  1-9.     The  words  of  Lemuel  —  the  warnings  of  his 

mother,  etc. 
31 :  10-31.     A  description  of  the  worthy  woman. 
10.  The  book  of  Ecclesiastes.     c.  250-200  (?)  b.c. 
Chap.    1 : 1-11.     The  writer's  conclusion  as  to  the  vanity  of 
Hfe,  etc. 
1 :  12-2 :  26.     The  disappointing  nature  of  the  pursuit 
after  wisdom,  etc. 

3.  The  view  that  each  event  has  its  allotted  time  in  the 
divine  order,  etc. 

4.  The  evils  and  miseries  of  the  world  reviewed,  etc. 
5-6.     Advice  in  reference  to  worship,  prayer  and  vows,  etc. 
7.     The  value  of  reputation,  of  cultivating  seriousness,  etc. 
8 :  1-9  :  10.     The  value  of  wisdom,  especially  in  deter- 
mining conduct,  etc. 

9  :  11-10  :  20.  Conclusion  drawn  from  observation  that 
life's  rewards  are  matters  of  chance  not  merit,  etc. 

11:1-12:8.  Benevolence  commended;  excess  of  cau- 
tion unwise,  etc. 

12  :  9-14.  The  epilogue  —  character  of  the  writer  and 
his  object,  etc. 

iv.  (cont'd) .  Composition,  etc.,  of  the  literary  productions,  332  ff .  b.c. 

j.  While  Prov.  1 :  1-6,  7  is  a  general  introduction  to  the  whole 
book,  it  may  well  have  been  written  by  the  author  of  the  remainder 
of  chaps.  1-9.     1 :  7  is  the  motto  or  key-note  of  the  book. 

k.  Prov.  6 :  1-19  and  9 :  7-12  are  considered  by  a  number  of 
scholars  later  additions  to  chaps.  1-9  ;  also  2  :  5-8  and  3  :  27-35  by 
some  {e.g.  Toy,  Prov.).     Cf.  Comms. 

I.  That  the  collections  22  :  17  ff.  and  24  :  23  ff.  were  not  written 
by  the  author  of  chaps.  1-9  is  shown,  it  is  claimed,  by  the  facts: 
(a)  that  the  tone  is  different  in  the  two  sections,  and  (6)  that  there 
is  an  absence  of  characteristic  features  of  phraseology  common  to 
the  two.     Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds. 

m.  Notice  in  the  section  22 :  22-24 :  22  that  some  themes  are 
developed  to  a  considerable  length;  e.g.  the  value  of  parental 
instruction  (23  :  22-25),  and  a  warning  against  drunkenness  (23  :  29- 
35).  In  the  section  24  :  23-34  is  found  the  extended  description  of 
the  sluggard,  vss.  30-34. 

n.  Scholars  differ  in  their  views  in  reference  to  the  number  of 
verses  which  belong  to  Agur  in  chap.  30,  whether  1-4,  1-9,  1-10 
or  the  whole  chapter.  Vss.  5  f .  are  taken  by  many  as  an  answer 
by  the  writer  of  vss.  1-4  (or  by  another  subsequent  poet)  to  the 
questioning  spirit  expressed  in  vss.  1-4.  Cf .  Comms.  and  Introds. 
in  loc. 


312     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

0.  31: 10-31  is  an  alphabetical  poem  in  the  Hebrew. 

p.  The  book  of  Eccles.  is  difficult  to  analyze,  owing  to  abrupt 
transitions  of  thought  and  uncertainty  of  the  meaning  of  the  text 
in  many  places.  The  lack  of  order  is  explained  :  (a)  by  some  on  the 
theory  that  chaps.  3-12  were  reconstructed  (or  compiled)  from  loose 
notes  of  the  author  after  his  death ;  or  (h)  by  editorial  omissions 
and  insertions.  According  to  some  scholars  the  book  represents  a 
three-fold  structure :  1st,  material  concerning  the  vanity  of  Hfe, 
which  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  book.  2nd,  inserted  verses 
in  harmony  with  accepted  religious  views  (viz.  2  :  26a ;  3  :  17 ; 
7:266;  8 :  12  f. ;  11:96;  12:1(?),  7,  9-14);  3rd,  a  section  of 
proverbs  of  general  character  (=  9:17-10:20).  For  other  the- 
ories of  composition,  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.,  especially  Barton, 
Eccles.  44-46.  In  favor  of  the  unity  of  the  book,  see  espec. 
Cornill,  Introd.  454  f . ;  Genung,  Koheleth. 

q.  According  to  some  scholars  a  more  strictly  biographical  narra- 
tive begins  in  chaps.  3  ff .  —  the  allusions  to  Solomon  ending,  and 
in  their  place  references  to  contemporary  history  being  found. 

r.  According  to  Cheyne,  5 :  1-7 :  14  contain  a  collection  of  pro- 
verbial sayings  in  connection  with  the  writer's  record  of  personal 
experience.     Cf.  Job  and  Sol.,  etc  ,  214. 

s.  Almost  all  scholars  consider  that  the  epilogue  (12 : 9-14)  in 
whole  or  in  part  is  a  later  addition.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  reasons  given  for  this  view :  (a)  the  author's  meditations  end 
naturally  with  vs.  7  or  vs.  8 ;  and  (b)  the  tone  of  the  section,  —  its 
commendation  of  the  writer  (vss.  9  f.),  is  inconsistent  with  what 
would  be  expected  of  any  one's  statements  in  reference  to  himself. 
It  can  be  more  naturally  accounted  for  as  an  addition  by  a  later 
editor,  to  explain  that  the  real  writer  was  not  a  king  but  a  wise 
man.  By  other  scholars  the  addition  is  hmited  to  vss.  13  f.,  which, 
it  is  claimed,  were  inserted  by  an  editor,  to  explain  the  true  moral 
of  the  book  and  to  offset  any  possible  objections  to  its  teaching  as  a 
whole.  Further,  the  godliness  recommended  (cf.  vss.  13  f.  with 
vs.  la)  is  different  from  the  oft-repeated  conclusion  to  enjoy 
moderately  the  good  things  of  life  (cf.  2:24;  3:12,  22,  etc.). 
Cf.  contra,  Cornill,  Introd.  454.  See  further  Comms.  and  In- 
trods, in  loc. 

V.  (cont'd).     Chronological  notes. 

n.  The  following  are  some  of  the  variant  dates  for  the  compila- 
tion of  the  book  of  Prov. :  in  the  time  after  Ezra,  i.e.  after  432 
B.C.  (Duhm) ;  c.  350  b.c.  (Kautzsch) ;  c.  end  of  3rd  cen.  B.C. 
(Gordon) ;   2nd  cen.  b.c.  (H.  P.  Smith,  Siegfried,  etc.) ;  etc. 

0.  The  following  are  some  of  the  variant  post-exiHc  dates  for 
Prov.  1-9  =  350  b.c.  (Kautzsch) ;   Persian  or  Greek  period  (Mc- 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     313 

Fadyen) ;   320-200  (Moore) ;  c.  250  b.c.  (Nowack,  Cornill,  H.  P. 
Smith,  Toy,  etc.) ;  middle  or  end  of  2nd  cen.  b.c.  (Gordon). 

p.  For  the  relative  age  of  Prov.  8  and  Job  28,  both  descriptions 
of  Wisdom,  cf.  Comms.  and  Introds.  on  these  chaps. 

q.  In  addition  to  the  grounds  for  the  post-exilic  origin  of  the 
book  of  Proverbs  as  a  whole  (pp.  117  f.)  the  following  data  as  bear- 
ing more  particularly  on  the  collections  10 :  1-22 :  16  and  chaps. 
25-29  may  be  noted :  (a)  monotheism  is  taken  for  granted. 
The  theistic  faith  expressed  is  ''firm,  calm  and  unquestioning." 
Contrast  the  pre-exilic  prophets,  who  had  to  plead  the  cause  of 
Jehovah  with  the  nation.  (6)  The  rehgious  conceptions  of  the 
prophets  are  accepted ;  e.g.  sacrifices,  cf.  15  :  8 ;  21 :  3,  27,  etc.,  with 
Am.  5  :  18  ff . ;  Hos.  6  :  6,  etc. ;  denunciation  of  oppression  and  com- 
mendation of  consideration  of  the  helpless ;  cf .  14  :  31 ;  17:5; 
28 :  3,  6,  27,  etc.,  with  Am.  4  :  1  fT. ;  Hos.  5 :  10  f. ;  Mic.  2  :  8,  etc. 
And  (c)  individual  and  domestic  Hfe  rather  than  national  is  dealt 
with.  The  prophetic  standpoint  w^as  national ;  e.g.  Israel  versus 
other  nations,  and  a  national  conception  of  religion.  In  these 
sections  of  Prov.  it  is  the  upright  and  ungodly ;  the  humble  and 
proud,  who  are  contrasted,  and  the  conception  of  rehgion  is  individ- 
ualistic. 

r.  Some  of  the  variant  post-exilic  dates  for  10 : 1-22  :  16  =  Per- 
sian period  perhaps  (Moore);  4th  cen.  b.c.  (Cornill?);  350-300 
B.C.  (Toy ;  cf .  Nowack  =  towards  end  of  Persian  or  beginning  of 
Greek  period) ;  c.  300  b.c.  (H.  P.  Smith,  Gordon),  etc. 

s.  Among  those  who  hold  that  10 :  1-22 :  16  belongs  to  post- 
exihc  times,  some  beheve  that  it  had  a  pre-exilic  basis,  which  was 
expanded  and  revised  in  post-exilic  times  as  seen  for  instance  in 
the  absence  of  allusion  to  idolatry  and  the  way  in  which  monogamy 
is  taken  for  granted.  As  to  whether  there  are  remnants  of  a  Solo- 
monic collection  in  this  section  Kautzsch  maintains  that  ''we  can- 
not even  form  an  opinion."  Others  admit  at  least  the  presence  of 
pre-exilic  sayings  in  these  collections  (Nowack,  McFadyen, 
Martin,  etc.).  Toy,  who  assigns  the  whole  of  Prov.  in  its  present 
form  to  post-exiHc  times  (not  earher  than  the  second  half  of  the 
Persian  period),  admits  that  "no  Uttle  of  the  general  thought,  theis- 
tic and  ethical,  and  some  of  the  particular  illustrations,  may  be 
older  than  the  4th  century  b.c.^ 

It  may  be  added  that  between  the  view  of  a  pre-exilic  collection 
revised  in  post-exiHc  times,  and  that  of  a  post-exiUc  collection 
based  on  and  incorporating  pre-exiUc  elements,  there  may  not 
necessarily  be  much  difference. 

1  Cf.  HDB,  extra  vol.  7286  (Kautzsch) ;  iv.  142  (Nowack).  McFad- 
yen, Introd.  200.     EBi,  iii.  3916,  n.  4  (Toy).     Martin,  Prov,  etc.,  10  f. 


314      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

t.  If  10  :  1-22  :  16  is  a  post-exilic  collection,  then  the  sections  22  : 
17  ff.  and  24 :  23  ff.  ( =  in  the  nature  of  appendices)  undoubtedly 
are.  If,  however,  10  : 1  ff.  is  pre-exilic,  there  is  still  the  possibiHty 
of  assigning  the  origin  of  22  :  17  ff. ;  24 :  23  ff.  to  post-exiHc  times. 
Cf .  (a)  the  extended  form  of  the  sentence  including  five  (24  :  30-34) 
and  seven  verses  (23  :  29-35) ;  (6)  the  form  of  address,  ''my  son'* 
(23  :  15,  19,  26,  etc.,  cf.  Prov.  1-9) ;  (c)  the  hortatory form,cf.  chaps. 
1-9) ;  (d)  the  personification  of  Wisdom  (23  :  26,  cf.  chaps.  1-9) ; 
and  (e)  the  thought  of  retribution  in  the  world  to  come,  which,  it  is 
claimed,  is  found  in  23  :  18  and  24 :  14,  20,  and  of  which  there  is 
nothing  in  10 :  1  ff.  and  chaps.  25-29.  These  reasons,  it  is  main- 
tained, favor  a  date  approximately  near  to  the  time  of  chaps.  1-9 ; 
i.e.  c.  350-300  b.c.     Cf.  300-250  b.c.  (Toy). 

u.  The  section  24  :  23-34  forms  an  appendix  to  22  :  17-24  :  22 ; 
perhaps  compiled  by  the  same  editor,  possibly  by  the  general 
editor  of  the  whole  book. 

V.  Cheyne  favors  at  least  a  large  antique  basis  for  chaps.  25-29, 
the  proverbs  of  which  he  thinks  differ  considerably  from  those 
in  10  : 1-22  :  16.^ 

w.  Some  of  the  variant  post-exiHc  dates  for  chaps.  25-29  are, 
towards  the  end  of  Persian  or  beginning  of  Greek  period  (Nowack) ; 
350-300  B.C.  (Toy;  cf.  Cornill,  Gordon  =  4th  cen.  B.C.),  etc. 

X.  31 :  10-31  is  regarded  by  some  scholars,  who  hold  that  the 
rest  of  chaps.  30-31  =  post-exihc,  as  possibly  belonging  to  the 
time  of  the  early  monarchy .^ 

y.  Some  of  the  variant  post-exilic  dates  for  chaps.  30-31  are, 
c.  350  B.C.  (Ryle;  cf.  Kautzsch) ;  not  before  300  b.c.  (McFadyen) ; 
middle  or  end  of  3rd  cen.  b.c.  (Cornill,  Gordon) ;  2nd  cen.  b.c. 
(Toy,  cf.  Cheyne,  Jew  Relig.  Life,  173  ff.,  181).  Cf.  Nowack 
=  latest  in  the  book,  etc. 

z.  Various  attempts  at  identification  of  different  allusions  in 
Eccles.  have  been  made :  e.g.  in  4 :  15  ff.,  reference  to  the  High 
Priest,  Onias  II,  and  his  nephew  Joseph  (Jos.  Ant.  xii.  4) ;  in  6  :  3, 
a  description  of  Artaxerxes  II,  Mnemon  (404-358  b.c),  who  had 
115  children  and  who  died  of  grief  at  an  advanced  age  over  domes- 
tic tragedies ;  in  9  :  14  ff.,  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  Dora,  218  b.c, 
by  Antiochus  the  Great ;  in  10 :  16,  reference  to  Ptolemy  Epiph- 
anes  (205-181  b.c),  who  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  five 
years,  etc.  Cf.  Comms.  and  Introds.  Note,  however,  Davidson's 
judgment  that  all  such  attempts  at  identification  are  conjectural.^ 

^  Cf.  Cheyne,  Founders,  etc.,  339 ;  see  also  Davidson  on  Prov.  in 
Book  by  Book,  173.    See  also  p.  121,  n.  \  of  this  vol. 

2  Cf.  Bennett,  Introd.  153,  155  f. 

3  Cf.  EBi,  ii.  1162  (Davidson). 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     315 


SECTION  II,  c.  250-165  (140)  B.C. 

i.  The  period  c.  250-165  (140)  b.c.  No  Biblical  historical  rec- 
ords, cf.  below,  n.  ii.  a. 

ii.  Chronological  and  historical  survey  of  the  2nd  part  of  the  Greek 
period,  especially  the  events  leading  up  to  the  Maccahean  struggle, 
c.  250-165  B.C. 

a.  It  is  in  place  here  to  give  an  historical  outline  of  that  portion 
of  the  Greek  period  which  leads  up  to  the  Maccabean  struggle,  in 
continuation  of  note  ii.  6,  pp.  300  ff. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  the  third  century  B.C.  the  power  of 
the  Ptolemies  decHned,  and  the  Seleucidae  under  Antiochus  III, 
the  Great  (224-187  B.C.),  gained  the  ascendency.  By  218  b.c.  he  had 
made  himself  master  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  but  in  the  following 
year  was  defeated  by  the  Egyptians  at  Raphia  on  the  border  of 
Egypt  (cf.  Dan.  11 :  10-12).  Antiochus  desisted  from  further 
attacks  in  that  direction  till  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  in 
205  or  204  b.c.  (who  was  succeeded  by  his  son  five  years  of  age), 
when  he  again  by  £02  b.c.  gained  possession  of  Palestine.  An 
opposing  Egyptian  army  was  defeated  in  198  B.C.  The  Jews 
suffered  greatly  in  the  conflict  between  the  two  forces  (cf .  Jos.  Ant. 
xii.  3,  §§  3  f. ;  Dan.  11 :  13-16).  In  return  for  assistance  received 
from  the  Jews,  according  to  Josephus,  Antiochus  granted  them 
certain  favors,  viz.  exemption  from  taxes  for  a  time  and  freedom 
in  their  worship ;  also  a  contribution  to  the  Temple  and  worship, 
etc.  (cf.  Jos.,  Ibid.).  Egyptian  dominion  over  Palestine  was  now 
permanently  overthrown.  In  193  B.C.  he  gave  the  taxes  of  Pales- 
tine and  Ccelo-Syria  as  a  dowry  to  his  daughter  Cleopatra,  who 
was  married  to  Ptolemy  V,  Epiphanes  (cf.  Dan.  11  :  17).  In  190 
B.C.  he  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Magnesia  in  his  effort  to 
check  their  advance  in  Asia  Minor.  Soon  afterwards  (187  b.c.) 
he  met  his  death  while  attempting  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Bel  at 
Elymais  (cf.  Dan.  11 :  18  f.). 

During  the  reign  of  his  son  and  successor,  Seleucus  IV,  Philopator 
(188  or  187-176  or  175  b.c),  an  attempt  was  made  to  plunder  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem,  by  the  instigation  of  a  treacherous  Jew, 
Heliodorus,  who  was  sent  on  this  mission  but  did  not  accomplish 
his  purpose,  owing  to  the  intense  feeling  aroused  among  the  Jews 
(cf.  2  Mace.  3;  Dan.  11:20). 

On  the  death  of  Seleucus,  who  was  poisoned  by  Hehodorus,  the 
kingdom  was  seized  by  his  brother,  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (176  or 
175-164  B.C.),  under  whom  the  Jews  passed  through  one  of  the 
most  trjdng  experiences  of  their  history,  and  by  whom  he  was 
regarded  as  a  monster  (cf.  Dan.  8:23-25;    11:21  ff.).     At  the 


316      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

beginning  of  his  reign  the  High  Priest,  Onias  III(?)  was  deposed 
by  the  Hellenistic  party  at  Jerusalem,  and  his  brother  Jason  was 
appointed  in  his  place,  who  promised  greater  revenues  (2  Mace. 
4  :  3-8).  Through  his  influence  Greek  games  were  introduced  at 
Jerusalem,  and  a  great  enthusiasm  for  everything  of  Greek  origin 
took  possession  of  the  people  (cf .  Jos.  Ant.  xii,  5,  §  1 :  1  Mace.  1 :  10- 
15;  2  Mace.  4:9  ff.).  In  171  B.C.  Jason  was  supplanted  by 
Menelaus,  and  in  connection  with  the  conflicts  between  the  rival 
parties  the  aged  Onias  III  was  slain  (2  Mace.  4 :  23  ff.,  34 ;  Dan. 
11  :  21  f.).  Out  of  this  bloodshed  and  the  oppression  of  Menelaus 
grew  a  hatred  for  Antiochus  and  Menelaus  on  the  part  of  the  Jews, 
and  a  corresponding  lessening  of  their  passion  for  Hellenism.  In 
170  (or  169)  B.C.  Antiochus  invaded  Egypt  (cf.  1  Mace.  1:17; 
Dan.  11 :  25  ff.).  While  he  was  there,  Jason  with  a  small  force 
gained  possession  of  Jerusalem  for  a  time  and  put  to  death  many 
of  the  people.  Antiochus,  on  his  return  from  Egypt,  made  this  a 
pretext  for  falHng  upon  the  city.  Many  of  the  people  were  slain ; 
many  were  carried  off  as  slaves  and  the  Temple  was  plundered 
(cf.  1  Mace.  1 :  20-28 ;  2  Mace.  5 :  11  ff.  (?) ;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  5,  §  3 ; 
c.  Ap.  ii.  7  ;  Dan.  11 :  28). ^  In  169  (or  168)  b.c.  Antiochus  again 
invaded  Egypt  (2  Mace.  5:1;  Dan.  11 :  29  f.)  but  was  checked  by 
the  Romans.  On  his  return  he  wreaked  his  disappointment  and 
rage  upon  Jerusalem,  encouraged  by  renegade  Jews.  An  army 
was  sent  to  Jerusalem  to  put  an  end  to  Jewish  worship,  which 
massacred  many  of  the  people  (1  Mace.  1 :  29,  30 ;  2  Mace.  5  :  24- 
26).  In  carrying  out  the  king's  purpose,  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
were  razed ;  the  Temple  was  dismantled  and  desecrated ;  unclean 
animals  were  offered  as  sacrifices  ;  the  altar  of  Olympian  Zeus  was 
set  up  by  the  side  of  the  great  altar  in  the  Temple,  168  b.c.  ;  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath  and  all  Jewish  rites  and  feasts  were 
forbidden,  and  the  Jews  themselves  were  compelled  to  offer  swine's 
flesh  or  some  other  unclean  beast  in  pubHc.  Copies  of  the  Law 
were  also  destroyed  (cf.  1  Mace.  1 :  31  ff.,  cf.  2 :  15  ff. ;  2  Mace. 
6:1-5;  Jos.  Ant.  xii,  5,  §  4 ;  Dan.  11:31).  In  the  persecution 
which  followed  many  Jews  were  betrayed  by  their  countrymen; 
some  submitted  to  the  king's  will,  but  others  met  the  death  of 

1  There  is  some  uncertainty  in  reference  to  the  number  of  campaigns 
undertaken  by  Antiochus  against  Egypt,  whether  two  or  three.  Charles 
adopts  the  view  that  there  were  two,  viz.  in  170-169  (=  two  stages  in 
the  same  campaign)  and  in  168  b.c.  "Driver  favors  this  view  but  points 
out  that  since  the  persecuting  edict  belongs  to  the  year  168  b.c,  An- 
tiochus' attack  on  Jerusalem  must  have  taken  place  in  170  b.c.  owing 
to  1  Mace.  1 :  20,  29,  54."  Hence  Driver  considers  that  there  were  prac- 
tically three  expeditions  to  Egypt,  viz.  in  170,  169  and  168  b.c.  See 
discussion,  Driver,  Dan.  178  fif.  LOT,  491  f.  Charles,  Dan.  xl  f.,  128  f., 
etc. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     317 

martyrs  (1  Mace.  1 :  60  f . ;    2  Mace.  5  :  24  ff. ;    6  :  10  ff. ;    Dan. 
ll:32ff.). 

At  length  revolt  broke  out  at  Modein,  a  village  on  the  west  edge 
of  the  hills  of  Palestine,  which  Syrian  officials  visited  to  enforce 
the  royal  commission.  Mattathias,  an  aged  priest,  indignant  at 
seeing  an  apostate  Jew  advancing  to  offer  sacrifice  on  the  heathen 
altar,  slew  him  and  the  Syrian  officer  present,  and  with  his  five 
sons  fled  to  the  mountains  (1  Mace.  2 :  1  ff. ;  Jos.  Ant.  xii,  6,  §  2). 
Around  him  gathered  the  faithful  who  were  known  as  the  Chasids 
or  Hasideans  (=  the  pious).  At  first  their  efforts  were  confined 
to  striking  terror  among  the  apostates  by  guerilla  methods  (cf.  1 
Mace.  2:42;  7:13;  2  Mace.  14:6),  but  at  length  they  grew 
strong  enough  to  take  more  aggressive  steps  against  their  adver- 
saries (1  Mace.  2:44-48;   2  Mace.  8:  1-7). 

Mattathias  died  in  167  b.c.  but  was  succeeded  in  mihtary  com- 
mand by  his  son  Judas,  called  Maccabseus  (=  the  ''Hammerer," 
or  ''Extinguisher") J  who  displayed  mihtary  skill  of  an  unusual 
order.  He  early  signalized  his  leadership  by  a  two-fold  victory 
over  the  S>Tian  forces  with  his  small  army,  —  over  ApoUonius  who 
lost  his  life  (1  Mace.  3:3-12;  cf.  2  Mace.  5:24),  and  Seron 
(1  Mace.  3: 13-24;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  7,  §  1).  Another  greater  army 
was  despatched  against  him  under  three  experienced  generals, 
Ptolemy,  Nicanor  and  Gorgias,  which  met  with  the  same  fate  at 
Emmaus,  166  b.c.  (cf.  1  Mace.  3:27-4:25;  2  Mace.  8:8-29). 
Another  victory  over  Lysias,  the  vicegerent  of  the  kingdom  (during 
the  absence  of  Antiochus  in  the  East),  at  Beth-zur  the  ensuing  year, 
165  B.C.  (cf.  1  Mace.  4 :  28-35;  2  Mace.  11  :  1-12;  Jos.  Ant.  xii. 
7,  §§  2  ff.),  was  succeeded  by  the  purification  and  rededication  of 
the  Temple  (1  Mace.  4  :  42  ff.)  and  the  building  of  a  new  altar  on  the 
25th  of  Chisleu  ( =  Nov.-Dec),  165  b.c,  three  years  after  it  had 
been  defiled  by  Antiochus.  A  joyful  feast  of  celebration  of  eight 
days'  duration  followed,  which  it  was  decreed  should  henceforth 
be  yearly  commemorated  (1  Mace.  4  :  47-59 ;  2  Mace.  10  : 1-8 ; 
Jos.  Ant.  xii.  7,  §§6  f.).  In  the  year  164  B.C.,  Judas  and  his 
brother  Simon  gained  victories  for  the  Jews  in  Idumea,  Gilead, 
Galilee  and  PhiHstia  (1  Mace.  5 ;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  8).  After  the  death 
of  Antiochus  in  the  East  in  this  same  year,  Lysias  again  took  the 
field  against  the  Jews  and  gained  some  successes  (1  Mace.  6 :  1  ff., 
28  ff. ;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  9,  §§  1  ff.).  As  he  had,  however,  designs  upon 
the  throne  of  Syria,  he  made  peace  with  the  Jews,  granting  them 
absolute  religious  freedom  (1  Mace.  6  :  55-61 ;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  9,  §§  6 
f.).  The  war  henceforth  was  for  poUtical  independence.  Reli- 
gious liberty  had  been  secured.^ 

^  As  the  subsequent  struggles  and  fortunes  of  the  Maccabees  are  not 
with  certainty  reflected  in  any  of  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  they 


318      AN    INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 

iii.   Literary  productions,  c.  250-165  (or  140)  b.c. 

1.  The  hook  of  Esther,  c.  250-150  b.c. 

2.  Narrative  and  apocalyptic  messages  of  the  hook  of  Daniel,  167- 
165  B.C. 

Chap.    1.     Certain  Hebrew  captive  youths  selected  and  trained 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  etc. 

2.  Nebuchadnezzar's  disquieting  dream ;  its  interpreta- 

tion by  Daniel. 

3.  Nebuchadnezzar's  great  image  and  the  fiery  furnace. 

4.  The  dream  of  the  tree  and  Daniel's  interpretation. 

5.  Belshazzar's  feast ;  the  capture  of  Babylon. 

6.  Plot  against  Daniel ;  the  den  of  Hons. 

7.  Vision  of  the  four  beasts  and  the  interpretation. 

8.  Vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat  and  the  interpretation. 

9.  Daniel's  prayer  of  confession. 

10-11.     The  angel  interpreter  and  the  historical  review,  etc. 
12.     The  period  of  trouble  preceding  the  Messianic  age. 

3.  Psalms  possibly  Maccahean. 

a.  Pss.  74  and  79 ;  also  44  and  possibly  83  are  those  which  are 
more  commonly  regarded  as  having  their  origin  during  this  struggle, 
or  at  least  as  taking  their  present  form  at  that  time,  i.e.  revisions 
of  earlier  psalms.^ 

b.  The  following  are  assigned  to  this  period  by  Briggs :  Pss. 
33;  102  (2nd  part);  109  (2nd  part) ;  118;  129;  139  (last  part) ; 
147;  149.2 

c.  Cheyne  assigns  the  following  to  different  parts  of  the  Mac- 
cabean  period  beginning  with  168  b.c:  Pss.  20-21;  33;  44;  60; 
61;  63;  74;  79;  83;  101;  108;  115-118;  135-138;  145-147?; 
148-150.3  4 

are  not  outlined  in  this  volume.  Cf.  for  fuller  details  of  the  Maccabean 
struggle,  Kent,  Jew.  People,  294  ff.,  323  ff.,  334  ff.  Riggs,  Jew.  People,  3  ff., 
14  ff.,  29  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  441  ff.  HDB,  i.  105  f.  (Moss) ;  ii. 
515  f.  (Barnes) ;  iv.  433a  (Macpherson),  etc.  EBi,  i.  186  f.  (anonymous) ; 
ii.  2259  ff.  (Guthe) ;  cf.  iii.  2850  ff.  (Torrey) ;  iv.  4347  ff.  (Woodhouse), 
etc.  Introds.  to  Comms.  on  Dan.  O.  and  N.  Test.  Student,  Sept.  1892, 
pp.  94  ff .  (  =  article  by  the  present  writer  on  Maccabean  Psalms),  etc. 

1  Cf.  LOT,  387  f.  Bennett,  Introd.  145  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  251, 
etc.  Also  O.  and  N.  Test.  Student,  Sept.-Dec.  1892  =  articles  on  Mace. 
Psalms  (by  the  present  writer). 

'  Cf .  Briggs,  Psal.  i.  pp.  xc  ff. 

3  Cf .  Cheyne,  Origin  Psal.  455  ff .  See  further  for  references  against  the 
possibility  of  many  Maccabean  psalms,  p.  234,  n.  2,  of  this  vol. 

Note  the  view  of  W.  R.  Smith  that  Pss.  74,  79  and  44 ;  and  possibly  83 
=  c.  350  B.C. ;  cf.  also  the  same  date  for  Pss.  74,  79  and  89  by  Cheyne  in 
his  Founders,  etc.,  223.     Cf.  p.  270,  ii.  4.  b.  of  this  vol. 

*  For  the  remainder  of  the  literary  productions  of  the  period  c.  250-165 
(140)  B.C.,  cf.  p.  322. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE    OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     319 

iv.    Composition  of  the  literary  productions,  c.  250  ff.  B.C. 

a.  For  the  possibility  of  Esth.  9  :  20-10  :  3  belonging  to  a  differ- 
ent writer  from  the  rest  of  the  book,  cf.  Paton,  Esth.  57  f. 

h.  For  the  view  that  the  book  of  Daniel  is  composite,  e.g.  chaps. 
1-6  =  245-225  b.c,  and  chaps.  7-12  =  c.  166  B.C.  cf.  Kent.^ 

c.  The  section  Dan.  2  :  46-7  :  28  is  in  Aramaic.  For  different 
solutions  of  this  hterary  problem,  cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  According  to  some  scholars  Dan.  9 : 4-19  is  a  later  addition 
to  the  book.     Cf .  EBi,  i.  1004  (Kamphausen) ;  Charles,  Dan.  in  loc. 

V.   Chronological  notes,  etc. 

a.  Neither  in  Kings  nor  in  Jeremiah  is  there  any  reference  to  a 
siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  the  3rd  year  of  Jehoiakim  (Dan. 
1  :  1),  i.e.  c.  605  b.c.  The  chronological  statement  here  may  be 
based  on  the  reference  in  the  late  books  of  Chr.  (300-250  b.c.)  to 
the  vessels  of  the  Temple  being  taken  to  Babylon  in  his  reign 
(2  Chr.  36  :  6  f.).     Cf.  further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  The  traditional  interpretation  of  the  4  kingdoms  of  chap.  2  :  31  ff. 
is :  (a)  Chaldean ;  (5)  Medo-Persian  (Cyrus) ;  (c)  Greek  (Alex- 
ander =  the  belly,  vss.  32,  396) ;  followed  by  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Seleucidae  at  Antioch  and  the  Ptolemies  at  Egypt  ( =  the  thighs, 
vs.  32) ;  and  (d)  the  Roman,  followed  by  the  East  and  West  divi- 
sions with  Constantinople  and  Rome  as  centers  (=  clay  and 
iron,  vss.  33,  40  ff.).  The  modern  theory  is:  (a)  Chaldean;  (6) 
Median;  (c)  Persian,  and  (d)  Greek,  followed  by  the  Seleucidae 
and  Ptolemies,  who  often  were  externally  allied  but  inwardly 
disunited.  (Cf.  the  fact  that  the  book  distinguishes  between  the 
Median  and  Persian  kingdoms,  e.g.  6:8;  8:3.  This  concep- 
tion impHed,  of  the  Medes  being  the  conquerors  of  the  Babyloni- 
ans, is  probably  based  on  such  predictions  as  in  Isa.  13  :  17  ;  21 :  2.) 
Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

c.  The  vision  of  chap.  7  is  generally  regarded  as  parallel  to  the 
dream  of  chap.  2,  with  corresponding  difference  of  interpretation. 
According  to  the  old  vieio  the  10  horns  (vss.  7,  20  f.,  24)  represent 
the  10  European  kingdoms  following  the  Roman  empire.  The 
little  horn  (vss.  8  ff.,  20  f.,  24  ff.)  =  some  anti-Christian  power 
destined  to  arise  in  the  future.  According  to  the  view  of  modern 
interpreters,  the  10  horns  represent  10  successors  of  Alexander,  par- 
ticularly in  the  line  of  the  Seleucidae ;  the  little  horn  being  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  ;  [cf.  parallels  in  the  description  7  :  20  f .,  25  and  8  :  9-13, 
23-25,  —  the  latter  being  generally  admitted  to  refer  to  this  king 
^cf.  below,  n.  d)].    The  duration  of  persecution  mentioned,  vs.  25 

1  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  33  ff.  For  other  views,  ef.  Cornill,  Introd. 
390  f.  Charles,  Dan.  xxi  ff.  Cf.  in  favor  of  the  unity  of  Daniel,  Gray, 
Introd.  236  f. 


320     AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

(3  and  a  half  years),  agrees  well  with  the  length  of  time  the  Jews 
suffered  under  this  king.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  The  kingdoms  symboHzed  by  the  animals  are  clearly  given  in 
chap.  8.  The  ^'notable  horn"  (vss.  5  ff.,  21)  represents  the  first 
king  of  the  Grecian  empire,  Alexander  the  Great.  The  four  horns 
(vss.  8,  22)  =  the  four  kingdoms  into  which  his  empire  was  divided 
after  his  death,  viz.  those  of  Seleucus  at  Antioch,  Ptolemy  of  Egypt, 
Lysimachus  in  Thrace,  and  Cassander  in  Macedonia.  The  'kittle 
horn,"  from  the  descriptions  (vss.  9-14,  23-25),  is  generally  ad- 
mitted to  be  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Cf.  further  Introds.  and 
Comms.  in  loc. 

e.  The  expression,  literally  ''2300  evenings-mornings"  (8:14) 
is  a  pecuHar  one.  Possibly  it  denotes  half  days  (=  1150  days), 
i.e.  about  3  years  and  2  months.  Cf.  the  tribulation  of  3  and  a 
half  years  (7:25;  cf.  12:7);  also  1290  days  (12:11)  and  1335 
days  (12  :  12).  The  period  3  to  3  and  a  half  years  corresponds  with 
the  length  of  time  the  Sanctuary  was  in  possession  of  the  enemy. 
Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc.  Note  also  the  conclusion  of  some 
scholars  from  these  vss.  that  the  book  of  Dan.  was  written  before 
the  dedication  of  the  new  altar,  Dec.  165  b.c.     Cf.  Charles,  Dan.  89. 

/.  The  chronology  of  the  section  9  :  24-27  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  determine.  According  to  Driver  ''no  entirely  satisfactory  inter- 
pretation appears  yet  to  have  been  found."  The  traditional  view 
interprets  it  as  a  prediction  of  the  death  of  Christ  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.  Many  modern  scholars  refer  vs.  26a 
to  the  death  of  Onias  III ;  vss.  266-27  to  the  persecution  of  Antio- 
chus :  and  vs.  24  to  the  Messianic  age  which  is  to  succeed  his  per- 
secution.    Cf.  further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

g.  The  following  is  the  outline  of  historical  events  referred  to  in 
Dan.  11 :  the  kings  of  Persia  {vs.  2) ;  Alexander  the  Great 
{vs.  3) ;  the  division  of  his  kingdom  into  four  parts  after  his  death 
(vs.  4) ;  Ptolemy  Soter,  whose  captain,  Seleucus  Nicator,  gained 
the  dominion  of  Syria  and  Babylon,  306  b.c.  {vs.  5) ;  the  marriage 
alliance  between  Berenice,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  II,  Philadelphus 
of  Egypt,  and  Antiochus  Theos  of  Syria,  c.  249  b.c.  The  failure  of 
this  plan  to  cement  union  between  the  two  kingdoms,  —  Berenice 
losing  her  life  in  the  conflict  {vs.  6).  The  invasion  of  Syria  and 
Babylon  by  Ptolemy  III,  Euergetes  of  Egypt  (247-222  b.c.)  to 
avenge  the  death  of  his  sister,  246  ff.  b.c,  in  which  great  spoil  was 
secured.  Counter  aggression  by  Seleucus  II,  Callinicus  of  Syria, 
which  ended  in  failure,  240  B.C.  {vss.  7-9).  Seleucus  III,  Ceraunus 
(227-224  or  226-223  B.C.)  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Antiochus 
the  Great  (224-187  or  223-187  b.c),  who  attempted  to  invade 
Egypt,  but  was  defeated  at  Raphia  by  Ptolemy  Philopator,  217 
B.C.  {vss.  10-12).    An  expedition  against  Egypt  by  Antiochus  the 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     321 

Great  on  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  205  B.C.  [vss.  13-16,  — 
his  capture  of  Sidon  (?)  198  B.C.  {vs.  15) ;  and  his  operations  in 
Judaea  {vs.  16)].  Peace  of  Antiochus  with  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  to 
whom  he  gave  his  daughter,  Cleopatra  {vs.  17).  His  operations 
in  Asia  Minor,  196  ff.  B.C.,  checked  by  his  defeat  by  the  Romans 
under  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio  at  Magnesia,  190  b.c.  {vs.  18). 
His  death  while  attempting  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Bel  at  Ely- 
mais,  187  b.c.  {vs.  19).  The  mission  of  HeHodorus  in  the  reign 
of  Seleucus  IV,  Philopator  of  Syria  (187-175  b.c.)  to  pillage  the 
Sanctuary  at  Jerusalem;  the  king's  mysterious  death  {vs.  20). 
Events  connected  with  the  succession  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(175-164  B.C.)  and  operations  in  Syria  {vss.  21-24).  (Note,  that 
often  since  the  time  of  Jerome  vss.  22-24  have  been  referred  to  the 
first  Egyptian  campaign  of  Antiochus,  but  this  is  not  so  probable.) 
His  first  and  second  ( ?)  campaigns  against  Ptolemy  Philometor  of 
Eg>T)t,  170  or  169  b.c.  [  =  vss.  25-28,  viz.  the  defeat  of  Ptolemy 
through  the  treachery  of  his  adherents  {vss.  25  /.) ;  the  union 
between  the  two  kings  but  on  an  insecure  basis  {vs.  27) ;  the  mas- 
sacre of  Jews  at  Jerusalem,  Antiochus  regarding  the  conflict  between 
the  rival  parties  in  that  city  as  an  act  of  rebellion  {vs.  28) ;  cf.  1 
Mace.  1:20-24;  2  Mace.  5:11-21].  The  second  (or  third?) 
Egyptian  campaign,  168  B.C.,  in  which  his  designs  were  thwarted  by 
the  Romans  {vss.  29-30a).  The  measures  adopted  by  Antiochus 
to  suppress  the  Jewish  religion  [vss.  30b-39  =  the  encouragement 
given  to  renegade  Jews  {vs.  30h) ;  the  setting  up  of  the  altar  to 
Olympian  Zeus  (Jupiter)  in  the  Temple,  168  b.c,  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  ancient  sacrifices  {vs.  31 ) ;  conflicts  between  the 
apostates  and  patriotic  Jews  {vss.  32  f.) ;  the  rising  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, their  first  successes  and  reverses  {vss.  34  f-) ',  the  proud 
and  impious  character  of  Antiochus  described,  (vss.  36-39)].  A 
description  of  another  expedition  into  Egypt,  attended  with  suc- 
cess. On  account  of  disturbances  in  Palestine,  Antiochus  returns 
against  it,  where  he  meets  his  end  {vss.  40-45)-  Note,  that  dif- 
ferent interpretations  are  given  of  vss.  40  ff . ;  either  (a)  that  they 
refer  to  another  invasion  of  Egypt  subsequent  to  168  B.C. ;  or 
(6)  that  they  give  a  forecast  of  the  end  of  Antiochus,  fulfilled  in 
essence  but  not  hterally,  after  the  manner  of  Isaiah's  prediction 
in  Isa.  10  :  28  ff .  The  latter  view  seems  the  more  probable  one. 
Cf.  further  Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

h.  It  seems  impossible  to  determine  the  precise  events  to  which 
the  numbers  in  12 :  11  f.  refer,  owing  probably  to  the  lack  of  full 
details  of  those  years  of  struggle.  Possibly  it  may  be  an  approxi- 
mate way  of  denoting  the  period  of  persecution  in  general,  viz. 
about  3  and  a  half  years.  By  some,  however,  these  vss.  are  con- 
sidered glosses.     Cf.  Introds.  and  Comms,  in  loc. 


322      AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 


SECTION  II  (cont»d),  c.  250-165  (140)  B.C. 

i-ii  (cont'd).  For  Biblical  records  and  historical  survey  of  this 
period,  see  pp.  315  ff.,  i-ii. 

iii.  (cont'd).     Literary  productions,  c.  250  ff.  B.C. 

4.  Compilation  of  the  Psalter,  c.  250-140  (?)  B.C. 

a.  Introductory  psalms,  viz.  1-2. 

b.  Booki,  Psalms  3-41,  "Davidic.'' —  c.  450  (?)  or  — c.  430  (?) 
B.C.     Cf.  pp.  230  f. 

c.  Books  ii-^ii  in  part.  Psalms  42-83.  c.  430-330  (?)  B.C.  Cf. 
p.  231. 

d.  An  Appendix  to  Pss.  42-83,  viz.  Pss.  84-89,  c.  300  (?)  B.C. 
Cf.  p.  232. 

e.  Books  iv-^,  Pss.  90-150.     c.  250-140  (?)  b.c.     Cf.  pp.  232  ff. 

5.  The  following  literary  productions  have  also  been  assigned  to  the 
Greek  (or  Maccahean)  period  by  some  scholars. 

a.  Lam.  3  =  pre-Macc.  portion  of  the  Greek  age,  according  to 
Cheyne.^ 

6.  Isa.  19 :  17-25,  possibly  c.  180  B.C.,  according  to  Gray.^ 

c.  Zech.  9-14,  c.  160  B.C.,  according  to  Kent.^ 

d.  Isa.  24-27  =  Maccabean  period  according  to  Kent;  cf. 
Gray  (possibly  as  late).^ 

6.  The  closing  and  recognition  of  the  Third  Canon  ( =  the 
Writings  or  Hagiographa),  c.  150  (?)  B.C.  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  (?). 

The  following  is  the  order  and  grouping  of  this  Third  Canon  :  — 

a.  The  Poetical  books  =  the  Psalter ;   Proverbs  and  Job. 

6.  The  Five  Rolls  C'Megilloth")  =  Song  of  Solomon  (Canticles) ; 
Ruth;    Lamentations;    Ecclesiastes  and  Esther. 

c.  The  remainder  of  the  books  =  Daniel ;  Ezra-Nehemiah  and 
Chronicles. 

iv.  (cont'd).     Composition,  etc.,  of  the  literary  productions,  c.  250 

ff.  B.C. 

e.  The  view  adopted  above  that  Pss.  1  and  2,  which  are  anony- 
mous both  in  the  Hebrew  and  Septuagint  texts,  were  prefixed  to 
the  Psalter  as  a  fitting  introduction  by  the  final  compiler  is  one 
which  is  held  to-day  by  many  representative  scholars. 

1  See  Cheyne's  classification  of  the  poems  of  Lam.  and  refs.,  p.  270,  n. '. 

2  Cf.  Gray,  Isa.  i.  pp.  Ivi,  332  ff.  For  other  dates  suggested  for  this 
section  of  Isa.  cf.  pp.  302,  iii.  2 ;  96  f.,  4.  d. 

3  Cf.  Kent,  Sermons,  etc.,  36,  453.  For  its  chron.  setting  in  this  vol. 
cf.  pp.  275  ff.;  302,  iii.  1. 

4  Cf.  Kent,  Ibid.,  497  ff. ;  also  Gray,  Isa.  i.  pp.  Ivi,  397  ff.  For  its 
ohron.  setting  in  this  vol.  cf.  pp.  220  ff. ;  269,  ii,  1. 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     323 

/.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  Pss.  90-150  the  divine  name  Jehovah 
prevails  over  that  of  God  ( =  Hebr.  Elohim) ;   cf.  pp.  225  f.,  (d). 

g.  Pss.  93,  95-100  are  termed  ''Theocratic  psalms"  by  some 
writers;  e.g.  Kirkpatrick,  Psal.  563,  571  f. 

h.  Ps.  108  is  a  compilation.  Vss.  1-5  //  to  Ps.  57  :  7-11 ;  and 
vss.  6-13  //  to  Ps.  60 :  5-12. 

I.  The  following  psalms  are  alphabetical  (acrostic)  in  books 
iv-v  =  111 ;  112 ;  119  (8  verses  to  each  letter  of  the  Hebr.  alpha- 
bet) and  145. 

j.  Pss.  113-118  form  the  "Hallel"  or  Hymn  of  Praise,  which 
according  to  Hturgical  usage  is  smig  at  the  three  great  Jewish 
festivals. 

k.  Pss.  120-134,  the  ''  Songs  of  Ascents,"  not  improbably  were 
songs  used  by  the  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  attend  the  feasts  at 
Jerusalem.  Cf .  for  discussion  of  the  term  "  Degrees  "  or  "  Ascents  " 
Introds.  and  Comms.  in  loc. 

I.  Ps.  136  is  known  as  ''the  Great  Hallel" ;  cf.  Pss.  113-118  = 
"the  Hallel,"  see  above,  n.  j. 

V.  (cont'd).     Chronological  notes. 

i.  According  to  the  chronological  classification  followed  in  this 
volume,  most  of  the  books  and  collections  found  in  the  third  great 
division  of  the  Jewish  Canon  given  above,  were  in  existence  at  the 
time  the  second  (Prophetic)  Canon  was  closed;  i.e.  c.  250  (200) 
B.C.  (cf.  p.  308,  iii.  8),  though  they  were  not  included  in  that  second 
division  of  the  Old  Testament  writings.  Of  these  the  following  are 
cited  in  Ecclus.,  chaps.  44-50,  c.  180  B.C. :  =  Chr. ;  (Ezra)-Neh. ; 
possibly  Lam.  (cf .  49  :  6)  and  psalms  (but  not  necessarily  the  com- 
pleted Psalter).  Cf.  also  the  fact  that  Prov.  (in  part  at  least) 
is  implied,  it  is  claimed  (cf .  Ecclus.  24  :  9  with  Prov.  8  :  22  ;  1  :  14 
with  Prov.  1:7;  9  :  10,  etc.).  Some  of  these  books,  thus  referred 
to  as  among  the  sacred  writings,  may,  as  Ryle  thinks,  perhaps 
have  formed  an  appendix  to  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  at  the  end 
of  the  3rd  century  b.c.  (cf.  Ryle,  Canon,  etc.  131). 

Among  the  reasons  leading  to  the  formation  of  this  third  division 
of  the  Canon,  as  this  same  writer  suggests  (pp.  134  ff.),  the  perse- 
cution of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  may  reasonably  have  played  an 
important  part.  In  carrying  out  the  command  of  this  king  to 
destroy  all  copies  of  the  Law  (168  B.C.),  other  cherished  writings 
of  the  Jews  doubtless  met  with  the  same  fate.  This  would  Hkely 
lead,  after  the  persecution  ended,  to  a  greater  valuation  being 
placed  on  the  books  not  included  in  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  and 
to  an  attempt  to  form  a  third  division  of  the  sacred  books.  The  date 
for  the  beginning  of  this  movement,  suggested  by  Ryle  (Ibid.,  p. 
137)  =  not  later  than  the  revival  under  Jonathan  and  Simon,  161- 
135  B.C. 


324      AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

It  seems  impossible  to  determine  definitely  the  date  of  its  close. 
The  following  are  the  more  important  facts  bearing  on  this  point : 
(a)  in  the  Greek  prologue  of  Ecclus.,  c.  130  b.c,  reference  is  made 
to  ''the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  other  hooks."  While  this 
seems  to  recognize  a  third  collection,  it  does  not  necessarily  deter- 
mine that  it  was  completed  at  that  time,  (b)  The  recognition  of 
the  three-fold  division  of  the  Canon  in  the  N.  Test,  (cf .  Lk.  24  :  44, 
where  ''psalms"  =  the  third  division).^  Note  also  that  Chr.  is 
apparently  referred  to  as  the  last  book  of  the  Jewish  Canon  (cf. 
Matt.  23  :  35 ;  Lk.  11 :  51  =  Gen.  to  Chr.,  i.e.  "Abel"  =  Gen.  4  :  8, 
and  "Zachariah"  =  2  Chr.  24  :  20-22).  It  is  to  be  further  noted 
that  of  the  Third  Canon,  Esther,  Canticles,  Eccles.  and  Ezra-Neh. 
are  not  cited  in  the  N.  Test. ;  nor  are  the  first  three  in  Philo. 
(c)  The  testimony  of  Josephus,  c.  100  a.d.  (cf.  c.  Ap.  i.  8),  that  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Jews  numbered  twenty-two.  While  there  is 
difference  of  view  in  reference  to  the  books  he  means,  the  significant 
fact  is  that  this  same  number  is  also  given  in  later  fists  by  those  who 
accepted  the  complete  Canon.  And  (d)  at  the  coimcils  of  Jamnia, 
c.  90  A.D.  and  118  a.d.,  the  canonicity  of  Canticles  and  Eccles., 
which  had  been  in  dispute,  was  determined.  This,  however,  does 
not  of  necessity  mean  that  these  books  had  not  previously  been 
included  in  the  Third  division  of  the  Canon ;  but  rather  that  now 
all  questions  as  to  their  canonical  authority  were  settled. 

It  is  generally  agreed  then  that  c.  100  a.d.  at  the  latest  the  O. 
Test.  Canon  was  formally  closed  by  the  Jewish  authorities.  Two 
causes  especially  led  to  this  result.  1st,  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  Romans  70  a.d.,  which  increased  the  Jewish  devotion 
to  the  Scriptures  ;  and  2nd,  the  influence  of  the  LXX  among  the 
Greek-speaking  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  (cf .  also  the  fact  that  this 
was  the  version  of  the  O.  Test,  which  the  Christians  accepted). 
As  it  contained  other  writings  besides  those  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
it  became  necessary  for  the  Jews  to  define  the  fimits  of  their  Canon 
to  prevent  confusion. 

Of  the  different  books  composing  this  division,  the  first  to  be 
recognized  was  probably  the  Psalter ;  the  next  most  likely  were  the 
Wisdom  books,  Proverbs  and  Job.  Of  the  others,  probably  Ruth 
and  Lamentations  received  early  recognition,  and  Daniel  (as  the 
forerunner  of  such  apocalyptic  books  as  Enoch  and  the  Apocalypse 
of  Ezra) ;  possibly  also  Ezra-Nehemiah.  The  other  books  received 
more  tardy  recognition,  especially  Ecclesiastes,  Esther  and  the 
Song  of  Solomon  (Canticles).  As  has  already  been  noticed,  Eccle- 
siastes and  Canticles  were  only  finally  accepted  c.  100  a.d.  Esther 
was  the  subject  of  questioning  even  later.  The  fact  that  Chroni- 
cles, which  originally  with  Ezra-Nehemiah  formed  one  book,  is 

1  Cf .,  however,  contra,  W.  R.  Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Church  \  177  f . 


BIBLICAL   OUTLINE   OF   THE   GRECIAN   PERIOD     325 

separated  from  them  and  placed  in  order  after  them,  seems  to 
show  that  it  did  not  receive  canonical  authority  till  subsequent  to 
the  time  when  Ezra-Nehemiah  had  been  accepted. 

Ryle  thinks  that  all  the  books  must  have  been  included  before 
the  1st  century  B.C.,  as  that  was  a  time  of  civil  wars  and  controver- 
sies between  different  Jewish  schools.  His  date  is  160-105  (  = 
death  of  John  Hyrcanus  I)  B.C.  Cf .  against  his  arguments  Budde. 
Cf.  similar  views,  c.  100  b.c.  =  Bruce;  McFadyen,  etc.  ''Pretty 
generally  accepted  before  the  Christian  era"  =  Buhl;  Bennett; 
G.  A.  Smith,  etc. 

Others  hold  a  less  conservative  view,  viz.  that  there  is  no  evidence 
definite  enough  to  show  that  it  was  closed  till  after  70  a.d.,  i.e. 
practically  not  till  c.  100  a.d.  =  W.  R.  Smith;  Budde,  Briggs, 
Sanday,  Cornill  ( =  2nd  cen.  a.d.)  ;   Wildeboer,  Moore,  etc.^ 

1  Cf.  further  on  the  Third  division  of  the  Canon,  LOT,  i  £f.  Bennett, 
Introd.  1  &.,  12  f.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  121  ff.  Gray,  Introd.  2  f. 
Moore,  LOT,  7  fif.  CorniU,  Introd.  477  ff.  McFadyen,  Introd.  2.  W.  R. 
Smith,  O.  T.  Jew.  Chm'ch,^  149  ff.,  espec.  163  ff.,  174,  178  ff.  Ryle, 
Canon,  etc.,  129  ff.,  153  ff.,  178  ff.  Wildeboer,  Canon,  etc.,  136  ff.  Buhl, 
Canon,  etc.,  13  ff.  HDB,  iii.  5976  f.  (Curtis) ;  612  ff.,  606  ff.  (Woods). 
EBi,  i.  666  ff.  (Budde).  Riggs,  Jew.  People,  23,  294. ff.  Sanday,  Inspir. 
91  ff.,  96.  G.  A.  Smith,  Modern  Crit.,  etc.,  7  ff.  Robertson,  Poet,  and 
Relig.,  etc.,  67  ff.  Briggs,  Holy  Scripts.  124  ff.,  cf.  118  ff.  Cheyne, 
Job  and  Sol.  279  ff.     Bruce,  Apologetics,  315  ff. 


APPENDIX   A 

The  Chronological  Order  of  the  Biblical  Material  of 
Ezra-Nehemiah  on  the  Theory  of  the  Priority  of 
Nehemiah's  Mission 

According  to  the  Biblical  order  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  the 
mission  of  Ezra  preceded  that  of  Nehemiah.  While  this 
chronological  arrangement  has  been  followed  in  this  volume, 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  many  scholars  to-day  beheve  that  the 
Chronicler  has  antedated  the  mission  of  Ezra,  which  should 
follow  not  precede  that  of  Nehemiah.  There  are  weighty 
reasons  favoring  this  view,  the  principal  of  which  are  as 
follows :  (a)  absence  of  any  reference  to  Ezra's  expedition 
or  his  reforms  (Ezra  7  ff.)  in  Nehemiah's  memoirs  (Neh. 
Iff.);  (b)  no  allusion  to  Ezra  from  the  time  of  his  reforms 
(Ezra  9  f.)  till  his  sudden  appearance  in  connection  with  the 
reading  of  the  Law  (Neh.  8 ;  10)  and  the  dedication  of  the 
walls  (cf.  Neh.  12:36),  i.e.  between  458  and  445  (444)  b.c. 
And  (c)  it  is  further  argued  that  the  work  of  Ezra  reasonably 
implies  that  of  Nehemiah ;  viz.  his  surprise  and  grief  over 
mixed  marriages  (Ezra  9:1  ff.)  presuppose  Nehemiah's 
reforms  {e.g.  Neh.  13 :  23  ff.)  ;  also  the  inference  that  Nehe- 
miah's work  in  rebuilding  the  w^alls,  by  calling  forth  the 
gratitude  of  the  people,  would  naturally  prepare  the  way  for 
Ezra's  drastic  measures  (Ezra  9  f.).  Again,  the  settled  life 
of  the  community  at  Jerusalem  on  Ezra's  arrival  (Ezra  7  f.) 
indicates  that  the  city's  walls  had  been  rebuilt  and  fortified.^ 

According  to  this  theory  the  date  of  Ezra's  expedition  was 
subsequent  to  433  (432)  b.c.  ( =  Nehemiah's  2nd  visit  to 
Jerusalem;   cf.  Neh.  13:  6).^     It  is  the  supposition  of  some 

1  Cf .  Ezra  9  :  9,  which  seems  to  imply  that  the  walls  were  rebuilt.  See, 
however,  the  explanation  of  this  verse,  Ryle,  Ezra,  etc.,  121. 

2  Cf.,  however,  the  view  of  Cheyne  that  Ezra's  expedition  dates  from 
the  27th  year  of  Artaxerxes,  viz.  438  (437)  b.c.  ;  i.e.  between  the  1st  and 
2nd  visits  of  Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem.  See  EBi,  ii.  1474,  n.  1 ;  iii.  3385 
(Cheyne). 

327 


328  APPENDIX  A 

that  it  was  the  37th  year  of  Artaxerxes  =  c.  427  B.C. ;  the 
number  30  having  dropped  out  of  the  text  of  Ezra  7  :  8  by  a 
mistake  of  the  copyist.  By  others  Ezra's  date  is  assigned 
to  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II,  Mnemon  (404-361  or  358  B.C.), 
the  7th  year  of  whose  reign  =  398-397  B.C. 

It  may  be  added  that  scholars  are  practically  agreed  that  the 
Chronicler  put  Ezra  4  :  6,  7-23  in  a  wrong  chronological  position. 
See  pp.  258  f.,  iii.  c.  This  shows  at  least  the  possibility  that  he 
may  have  done  the  same  in  connection  with  the  relative  order  of 
the  missions  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.^ 

i.  According  to  the  above  view  the  reconstructed  histori- 
cal order  of  Ezra-Nehemiah  is  as  follows :  — 

a.  Events  between  c.  537-516  (515)  b.c. 
Ezra  1 : 1-4  :  5  +  24.     Return  of  Exiles ;    building  of  altar,  etc. 
c.  537  B.c.^ 
5-6.     The    building    of    the    Temple,    etc.     520  (519)-516 
(515)  B.C. 
h.  Events  in  the  years  445-444  b.c. 
Neh.  1-6.     Nehemiah's  mission;   building  the  walls,  etc. 
Ezra  4  :  6-23.     The  Samaritan  appeal  to  the  king. 
Neh.  7  :  l-5a.     Measures  for  protecting  the  city. 

7  :  56-69.     //  Ezra  2  :  1-67.     List  of  returned  Exiles. 

11.     Measures  for  increasing  the  residents  of  Jerusalem,  etc. 

12 : 1-26.     List  of  Levitical  and  priestly  families. 

12  :  27-43.     Dedication  of  the  walls ;  offerings. 

12  :  44-13  :  3.     Appointment  of  different  officials,  etc. 

c.  Events  connected  with  NehemiaKs  second  residence,  433 
(432)  B.C. 

Neh.  13  :  4-31.     Expulsion  of  Tobiah  from  the  Temple,  etc. 

d.  The  mission  of  Ezra,  c.  427(?)  b.c.  or  397(?)  B.C. 

*  Cf.  for  further  discussion  of  this  question,  LOT,  552  f.  Bennett, 
Introd.  118  f.  Bennett,  Primer,  etc.,  224.  McFadyen,  Introd.  337  ff., 
346.  CorniU,  Introd.  252  fP.  Gray,  Introd.  101  f.  Moore,  LOT,  130  f. 
G.  A.  Smith,  Bk.  of  XII,  ii.  pp.  194  f.  Ryle,  Ezra,  etc.,  xl  f.  Davies, 
Ezra,  etc.,  25  ff.  Batten,  Ezra,  etc.,  4  ff.,  28  ff.  HDB,  i.  821  (Batten) ; 
ii.  515  (Barnes) ;  iv.  979  (Selbie).  EBi,  ii.  1473  ff.,  1480,  1486  (Kosters 
and  Cheyne) ;  2254  f.  (Guthe) ;  iii.  3385  (Kosters  and  Cheyne).  Torrey, 
Compos.,  etc.,  Ezra^Neh.  29  ff.  Cheyne,  Introd.  Isa.  xxxiii  ff.  Cheyne, 
Jew.  Relig.  Life,  38  ff.  Kent,  Jew.  People,  108  f.,  195  f.  Kent,  Hist. 
Biog.,  etc.,  31  ff.,  339  ff.  H.  P.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.  390  ff.  Wade,  O.  T. 
Hist.  478  f.  McFadyen,  Hists.  316  f.,  331,  n.  1.  Sanders,  Hist.  Hebrs. 
242  f.,  249  ff.,  256  f.     Bennett,  Post-Exil.  Prophs.  90  ff.,  etc. 

2  For  the  view  that  Ezra  2 :  70-4 :  3  +  246  narrate  events  c.  520  b.c, 
cf.  Batten,  Ezra,  etc.,  in  loc. 


APPENDIX  A  329 

Ezra  7  :  1-26.     Arrival  of  Ezra  at  Jerusalem,  etc. 

7  :  27-8  :  30.     Details  of  preparation  and  the  journey,  etc. 

8  :  31-36  +  Neh.  7  :  70-73a  (cf.  Ezra  2  :  68-70).     Gifts  and 

offerings. 
Neh.  7  :  736-8 :  18.     Reading  of  the  Law  under  Ezra's  directions, 

etc. 
Ezra  9.     Ezra's  grief  on  account  of  mixed  marriages,  etc. 

10.     His  measures  of  reform,  etc. 
Neh.  9  :  1-37.     Ezra's  pubhc  prayer  of  confession,  etc.^ 

9  :  38-10  :  39.     The  covenant  and  those  signing  it. 

ii.  Chronology,  etc. 

a.  After  Neh.  7  :  l-5a  some  scholars  place  Neh.  11  :  1  f ;  12  :  27- 
43  +  12  :  44-13  :  31.     Cf.  Kent,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  360  fP. 

6.  After  Ezra  8 :  36  H.  P.  Smith  suggests  placing  Neh.  7 :  5  iBF. 
O.  T.  Hist.  393,  n.  1. 

c.  According  to  the  above  historical  order,  the  assembly  for 
the  reading  of  the  Law  (Neh.  7 :  735  ff.)  =  2  mos.  after  Ezra's 
arrival  in  Jerusalem  ;  cf .  Ezra  7  :  9  (  =  5th  mo.)  with  Neh.  7  :  736 
(=  7th  mo.). 

d.  Between  Ezra  10 :  9  and  10 :  10  some  scholars  insert  Neh. 
13 :  1-3,  e.g.  McFadyen,  Introd.  346. 

e.  After  Neh.  10  :  39  some  scholars  place  Neh.  7  :  6-69  (//  Ezra 
2  :  1-67) ;  Neh.  11 :  3-36;  12  : 1-26.  Cf.  Kent.,  Hist.  Biog.,  etc., 
379  ff. 

/.  Some  scholars  place  Neh.  8  soon  after  the  events  of  chap.  10. 
Cf.  EBi.  ii.  1486,  1487  (Kosters  and  Cheyne) ;  2256  (Guthe). 

g.  For  other  variations  in  the  historical  order  cf.  further  Kent, 
Hist.  Biog.,  etc.,  and  Batten,  Ezra,  etc. 

1  This  prayer  is  attributed  to  Ezra  here,  following  the  LXX  reading  in 
vs.  6 ;  an  ascription  which  is  considered  probable  by  many  modem 
scholars.    See  Comms.,  Introds.,  etc.,  in  loc. 


APPENDIX  B 

The  Analysis  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  (Canticles)  accord- 
ing TO  the  *'  Shepherd  Hypothesis."     c.  300  b.c. 

i.  The  analysis  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  (Canticles)  according  to 
the  ''Shepherd  hypothesis."     c.  300  b.c. 

Chaps.  1 :  1-3  :  5.     First  group  of  poems. 

a.  1 : 2-8.  The  Shulammite  and  the  women  of  the  court :  the 
latter  celebrate  the  praises  of  Solomon  (vss.  2,  3,  4c-e),  and  reply 
ironically  to  the  Shulammite  (vs.  8) ;  the  former  longs  for  her 
absent  shepherd-lover,  and  explains  her  personal  appearance 
(vss.  4a-6,  5-7). 

6.  1 :  9-2 :  7.  The  king  pleads  his  suit  with  the  Shulammite 
(1 :  9-11,  15 ;  2:2);  the  latter  parries  the  utterances  of  the  king 
by  praising  her  absent  lover,  and  at  the  same  time  reminds  the 
women  of  the  court  that  true  love  is  a  spontaneous  affection 
(1 :  12-14,  16-2  : 1,  3-7). 

c.  2:8-17.  The  shepherd-lover  and  the  Shulammite:  the  com- 
ing of  the  former  described  (vss.  8  f.) ;  his  invitation  (vss.  10-14) ; 
the  song  of  the  Shulammite  (vs.  15) ;  an  expression  of  her  devo- 
tion (vss.  16  f.). 

d.  3:1-5.  The  Shulammite' s  narration  of  her  dream  ( =  the 
first) :  her  search  for  her  absent  lover  whom  she  finds  (vss.  1-4) ; 
her  adjuration  (vs.  5,  cf.  2:7). 

Chaps.  3  :  6-6  :  3.     The  second  group  of  poems. 

a.  3:6-11.  The  approaching  pageant  of  king  Solomon, — wit- 
nessed by  the  Shulammite  and  attendant.  The  former  inquires  who 
is  approaching  (vs.  6);  the  latter  explains  (vss.  7-9,  10?);  and 
exhorts  the  women  of  Jerusalem  to  go  forth  to  see  their  king 
(vs.  11). 

6.  4 : 1-7.  Solomon  renews  his  suit  with  the  Shulammite  — 
he  describes  and  praises  her  physical  charms. 

c.  4  :  8-5  :  1 .  The  shepherd-lover's  pleading  with  the  Shulammite : 
the  former  entreats  her  to  escape  with  him  from  danger  (vs.  8), 
and  passionately  expresses  his  love  (vss.  9-15) ;  the  latter  yields 
(vs.  16);    the  former  joyfully  responds  (5:1). 

d.  5  :  2-6  :  3.  The  Shulammite' s  narration  of  her  dream  (  =  the 
second) :  her   unsuccessful    effort    to    find    her    lover    (5 : 2-7) ; 

330 


APPENDIX  B  331 

her  waking  request  of  the  women  of  the  court  to  tell  him  of  her 
love  (vs.  8) ;  their  question  of  surprise  as  to  his  attractive  power 
(vs.  9) ;  her  description  of  his  physical  charms  (vss.  10-16) ;  their 
inquiry  in  reference  to  where  he  has  gone  (6:1);  her  evasive 
reply,  —  her  lover  is  for  herself  alone  (6  :  2-3). 
Chaps.  6  :  4-8  :  14.     The  third  group  of  poems. 

a.  6 : 4-13.  Solomon  again  presses  his  suit :  he  once  more 
praises  her  physical  charms  (vss.  4-9) ;  he  quotes  an  encomium  of 
her  by  the  women  of  the  court  (vs.  10) ;  the  Shulammite  tells 
where  she  was  when  the  women  of  the  court  met  her  (vss.  11  f.) ; 
her  attempt  to  escape  and  their  entreaty,  —  her  reply  of  surprise 
(vs.  13). 

b.  7 : 1-6.  The  physical  charms  of  the  Shulammite  described 
and  praised  by  the  women  of  the  court. 

c.  7  :  7-8  :  4.  The  final  effort  of  the  king  to  win  the  Shulammite' s 
love :  he  again  praises  her  and  expresses  his  love  for  her  (vss.  7- 
9a,  9c) ;  she  declares  her  affection  for  her  own  lover  (vss.  96  = 
an  'aside,'  10);  she  appeals  to  him  to  return  to  their  country 
home  (vss.  11-13);  and  expresses  the  wish  that  he  were  her 
brother  that  her  love  might  find  free  expression  (8 : 1-3) ;  the 
refrain  (vs.  4 ;   cf.  2  :  7 ;   3  :  5). 

d.  8:5-7.  The  return  of  the  Shulammite  with  her  lover:  their 
approach  observed  and  questioned  (vs.  5a-6) ;  she  reminds  her 
lover  of  past  events  (vs.  5c-6) ;  her  declaration  of  the  enduring 
and  irresistible  power  of  love  (vss.  6  f.). 

e.  8 : 8-14.  The  Shulammite' s  vindication :  she  recalls  her 
brother's  scornful  remarks  (vss.  8  f .) ;  she  affirms  her  fidelity 
(vs.  10) ;  and  expresses  her  contempt  for  Solomon's  wealth  (vss. 
11  f.) ;  her  lover  appeals  to  her  to  sing  (vs.  13);  her  response 
(vs.  14). 

ii.   Explanatory  notes  on  the  Song  of  Solomon. 

a.  The  outline  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  book  being  a  collection  of  songs  used  at  marriage  festivals  has 
been  given,  p.  302.  Since,  however,  many  modem  scholars  hold 
the  "shepherd  hypothesis"  of  interpretation,  the  analysis  of  the 
book  from  this  point  of  view  is  here  appended.  According  to  it  the 
book  is  dramatic  in  movement,  with  three  leading  characters  — 
the  plot  being  as  follows.  A  beautiful  country  maiden  of  Shulam 
(6 :  13)  had  been  compelled  by  her  harsh  brothers  to  watch  the 
vineyards  (1 :  5  if.).  On  a  certain  day,  as  she  went  into  a  garden, 
she  met  with  a  party  belonging  to  Solomon's  court,  and  by  force 
or  persuasion  was  conducted  to  the  king  (6  :  11  ff.),  at  first  possibly 
in  Jerusalem  (1  :  1-2 :  7),  later  somewhere  in  Lebanon  (2:8  if . ; 
4  :  8  ff . ) .     There  strong  eif  orts  were  made  by  the  women  of  the  court 


332  APPENDIX  B 

to  arouse  in  her  love  for  the  king  (1 :  1  ff. ;  cf.  7 :  1  ff.)?  and  also 
by  the  king  himself  (1 :  9  ff. ;  4  : 1  ff. ;  6:4  ff.).  To  both  she  was 
obdurate,  declaring  that  her  love  belonged  to  her  country-lover 
(1 :  7,  12-14,  16-2  :  1 ;  3:7,  etc.),  who  seeks  her  and  entreats  her 
to  escape  from  her  perilous  situation  (4  :  8  ff.).  Impressed  by  her 
steadfastness  the  king  at  length  gave  her  her  liberty,  and  in  com- 
pany with  her  lover  she  returned  home  (8 :  5  ff.).  The  cHmax  of 
the  poem  according  to  this  view  is  found  in  the  impassioned  praise 
of  true  love  (8  :  6  f.). 

Among  recent  defenders  of  this  view,  cf.  A.  Harper,  Song  of 
Sol.  HDB,  iv.  589  ff.  (Rothstein).  The  outHne  of  the  book  given 
above,  with  the  apportionment  of  verses  and  sections  to  the 
different  characters,  practically  follows  that  given  by  Harper. 

Another  interpretation  of  the  book  may  be  mentioned,  which 
confines  the  dramatic  movement  to  two  characters,  viz.  Solomon 
and  the  Shulammite  —  the  allusions  to  the  shepherd  referring 
also  to  the  king.     Cf .  Dehtzsch,  Keil,  etc. 

6.  2 :  8-17  is  possibly  to  be  understood  as  an  imaginary  scene. 

c.  On  4 : 1-7  as  modelled  on  the  wasf,  i.e.  a  description  of  the 
physical  beauty  of  the  bridegroom  and  bride,  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  wedding  rejoicings  still  in  Palestine  (cf .  also  5 :  10-16 ; 
6  :  4-7 ;   7  : 1-6),  see  Comms.  in  loc. 

d.  According  to  some  interpreters  the  scene  4 : 8  ff.  is  to  be 
understood  as  an  ideal  rather  than  an  actual  meeting. 

e.  The  speaker  chap.  7:1  ff.  is  Solomon  according  to  Ewald. 
Cf.  LOT,  442. 

/.  In  the  section  7 : 7-8 : 4,  according  to  the  interpretation 
adopted  in  the  outline  above,  the  king  is  supposed  to  withdraw 
after  7 :  10  and  the  Shulammite  then  communes  in  spirit  with 
her  absent  lover. 

g.  Some  scholars,  on  the  basis  of  the  Syriac,  assign  8 :  5  c-e  to 
the  shepherd-lover. 


APPENDIX   C 
A  Survey  of  Old  Testament  Chronology 

This  is  a  large  and  intricate  problem,  which  would  require 
more  space  than  can  well  be  given  in  this  volume  to  discuss 
it  fully.  The  attempt  is  here  made  to  take  up  the  most 
important  points  and  questions  involved  in  it,  as  supple- 
mentary to  the  different  chronological  notes  throughout 
this  volume,  and  in  order  also  to  bring  together  in  one 
section,  for  convenience  of  reference,  some  of  the  data  and 
conclusions  found  in  those  notes. 

In  determining  the  dates  of  Old  Testament  history  the 
sources  of  information  may  for  convenience  be  considered  as 
two-fold,  viz.  the  chronological  data  of  the  O.  T.  itself,  and 
what  are  furnished  by  other  nations,  especially  from  the 
Assyro-Babylonian  and  the  Egyptian  records.  This  second 
source  is  of  great  value  for  certain  periods  of  O.  T.  history 
(especially  the  Assyrian  records),  as  its  accuracy  has  been 
clearly  proved  (cf.  below  pp.  335  ff.),  and  on  the  basis  of  it 
the  dates  of  certain  important  Biblical  events  have  been  ab- 
solutely fixed.  From  these  established  years  others  can  be 
determined,  at  least  approximately,  by  the  aid  of  the  chrono- 
logical data  given  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  chronological  data  of  the  O.  T.  records  raise  in  many 
places  very  perplexing  questions,  and  they  cannot  be  used, 
in  fixing  the  dates  of  the  Biblical  history,  as  if  they  furnished 
unquestioned  sources  of  information.  This  is  due :  (a) 
partly  to  conflicting  computations  from  different  sources 
[e.g.  the  residence  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  =  430  years, 
Ex.  12 :  40  (P  or  R^) ;  400  years,  Gen.  15 :  13  (JE  or  R)  ; 
four   generations,  i.e.   100-150  years.  Gen.   15 :  16  =  E] ;  ^ 

^  Cf.  also  Ex.  6:  16-20  (P),  where  four  generations  are  given  between 
the  time  of  Joseph  and  Moses,  viz.  Levi,  Kohath,  Amram,  Moses.  "It 
might  perhaps  have  been  assumed  that  a  generation  in  the  later  patriarchal 
period  equalled  100  years,  it  is  not  credible  that  it  should  have  done  so  in 

333 


334  APPENDIX   C 

(h)  partly  to  the  use  of  round  numbers  apparently  (e.g. 
40  =  a  generation,  Judg.  3:11;  5 :  31,  etc. ;  ^  70  =  a  life- 
time, Ps.  90 :  10,  cf.  Jer.  29 :  10,  where  70  is  used  for  the 
duration  of  the  Exile,  which  strictly  extended  from  586- 
c.  538  B.C.) ;  and  (c)  partly  from  inexplicable  variation  in  the 
chronological  data  where  they  are  given  fully  and  apparently 
based  on  sources  equally  reliable  {e.g.  the  difficult  chrono- 
logical problems  in  the  period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom  (cf. 
below  pp.  344  ff.)  2 

It  is  necessary  therefore  to  consider  first  the  extra-Biblical 
sources  of  chronological  information  from  which  a  number  of 
Old  Testament  dates  can  be  fixed,  and  then  take  up  the  differ- 
ent periods  of  Hebrew  history  and  try  to  adjust  the  Biblical 
chronology  to  these  established  points  of  time. 


Outside  Available  Chronological  Help 

a.  Egyptian  sources  of  information.  Here  first  in  impor- 
tance is  the  Ptolemaic  Canon.  This  work  of  Claudius  Ptole- 
maeus,  of  the  2nd  century  a.d.,  includes  a  hst  of  the  different 
rulers  of  Babylon  (^^ Babylonian,  Assyrian  and  Persian") 
from  Nabonassar  to  Alexander  the  Great,  to  which  were 
added  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies  and  the  Romans.  The  trust- 
worthiness of  this  Canon  is  established  from  the  fact  that 

reality  "  (Driver,  Gen.  xxx).  This  assumption  would  help  to  harmonize 
the  apparent  (?)  variation  in  Gen.  15 :  13,  16,  but  it  is  more  likely,  as  in- 
dicated above,  that  different  sources  are  represented  by  these  two  verses. 
Cf.  e.g.  Skinner,  Gen.  in  loc. 

^  Cf.  Sayce's  view  that  "forty  years  in  Hebrew  idiom  merely  signified 
an  indeterminate  and  unknown  period  of  time,  and  the  Moabite  Stone 
shows  that  the  same  idiom  existed  also  in  the  Moabite  language.  Mesha 
says  in  the  inscription  (1.8):  '  Omri  took  the  land  of  Medeba,  and  (Israel) 
dwelt  in  it  during  his  days  and  half  the  days  of  his  son,  altogether  forty 
vears.'  The  real  length  of  time  was  not  more  than  fifteen  years."  Sayce, 
Early  Hist.  Hebrs.  145  f . 

2  Cf.  also  such  scattered  dates  as  those  in  which  one  occurrence  is 
related  in  point  of  time  to  another;  e.g.  Num.  13:22;  Isa.  6:  1,  etc.; 
also  Am.  1:  1  (=  "two  years  before  the  earthquake"),  which  is  of  no 
service  now  in  determining  the  exact  time  of  the  prophecy,  as  the  year  of 
the  earthquake,  while  probably  known  when  the  statement  was  written, 
is  unknown  now. 

Many  portions  of  literature  are  not  dated,  e.g.  Joel;  Isa.  24-27; 
40  ff.,  whose  historic  settings,  so  far  as  they  can  be  determined,  have  to  be 
settled  on  internal  evidence.  Cf.  EBi,  i.  775a  (Marti).  HPM,  ii.  420  ff. 
(n.  6  to  §  638,  in  Ap.). 


APPENDIX  C  335 

it  contains  astronomical  data  (in  addition  to  the  lengths 
of  reigns  recorded),  e.g.  the  eclipses  observed  and  chronicled 
by  the  Babylonians  and  Alexandrians,  which  modern  astron- 
omy has  demonstrated  were  correctly  given.  All  dates  in 
the  Canon  are  reckoned  from  the  accession  of  Nabonassar, 
and  ''as  the  dates  b.c.  of  the  Persian  kings  are  known  inde- 
pendently from  Greek  sources,"  the  accession  of  this  mon- 
arch is  found  to  be  747  b.c.^  For  the  relation  of  this  Canon 
to  the  Assyrian  chronological  records,  see  below  pp.  336  f. 

Secondly,  other  Egyptian  chronological  data.  Unfor- 
tunately the  determination  of  the  chronology  of  Egyptian 
history  is  involved  in  much  difficulty  and  uncertainty, 
especially  as  far  back  as  those  periods  where,  according  to  the 
Biblical  narratives,  the  Hebrews  first  came  in  contact  with 
that  nation.  It  is  not  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  go  into 
the  intricacies  of  this  problem,  which  are  due  to  the  fact  of 
the  many  contradictions  in  the  chronological  material  derived 
from  different  sources,  e.g.  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
monuments,  the  classical  authors  as  related  to  Egyptian 
affairs,  and  the  records  of  the  Egyptians  themselves. 

''The  most  learned  Egyptologists  can  themselves  determine 
Egyptian  chronology  only  through  combination  with  data  from 
outside  sources.  The  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  in  the 
year  525  b.c.  furnishes  their  cardinal  point.  From  this  event,  the 
years  of  reign  of  the  kings  of  the  26th  dynasty  may  be  fixed  with 
certainty  by  the  help  of  the  data  supplied  by  the  monuments, 
Herodotus  and  Manetho.  What  lies  before  Psamtik  I  ( =  Psam- 
metichus),  664-63  (or  c.  660)  B.C.,  the  first  Pharaoh  of  this  dynasty, 
however,  is  in  the  judgment  of  Egyptologists  more  or  less  uncertain, 
and  therefore  for  other  chronological  determinations  the  records 
of  that  earlier  time  are  either  not  to  be  used  at  all  or  to  be  used 
with  the  greatest  caution."  ^  3 

h.  The  Assyrian  records.  The  chronological  data  furnished 
by  Assyrian  records  belong  to  three  sources,  viz. :  (a)  royal 

'  Cf.  EBi,  i.  789  f.  (Marti). 

2  Cf.,  however,  Breasted's  conclusion  that  it  is  only  prior  to  the  ter- 
mination of  the  10th  dynasty,  c.  2100  b.c,  that  the  "  chronology  of  Egyp- 
tian history  becomes  unstable  and  exhibits  a  margin  of  uncertainty  of  at 
most  two  centuries;  that  is,  a  century  either  way."  Cf.  his  Ancient 
Records  of  Egypt,  i.  39. 

3  Cf.  EBi,  i.  787  f.  (Marti).  HDB,  i.  656  f.  (Crum).  Breasted, 
Ancient  Records  of  Egypt,  i.  pp.  25-47.  Toffteen,  Ancient  Chronology, 
149  ff.,  etc. 


336  APPENDIX  C 

annals,  giving  detailed  accounts  of  the  different  reigns ; 
(6),  Eponym  lists,  i.e.  lists  giving  the  name  of  the  officer 
after  whom  the  year  was  called ;  and  (c)  the  so-called  Chron- 
icles, i.e.  the  lists  of  kings  in  the  order  of  their  succession, 
with  the  lengths  of  their  reigns  and  a  short  summary  of 
the  more  important  events  which  occurred.  In  some  cases 
in  the  Eponym  lists  there  was  added  a  statement  in  briefest 
form  of  the  important  events  of  the  year.  These  lists  also 
mention  the  occurrence  of  eclipses,  the  dating  of  which  has 
been  found  absolutely  correct,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Canon 
of  Ptolemy.  The  accuracy  of  these  lists  ^'has  been  con- 
firmed by  every  possible  check." 

The  following  extracts  from  the  Eponym  lists,  in  which  the  chief 
events  of  the  year  are  chronicled,  will  illustrate  the  character  of 
these  records. 

781.     Shulmanu-asharidu    ( =  Shalmaneser),    king   of   Assyria. 

Against  the  land  of  Urartu. 
780.     Shamshi-ilu,    Tartan    ( =  commander-in-chief).     Against 
the  land  of  Urartu. 


763.     Pur-shagali  (?)  of  the  city  of  Gozan.     A  revolt  in  the 

city  of  Asshur.     In  the  month  of  Sivan  an  eclipse  of  the 

sun  took  place. 

In  these  lists  the  first  full  calendar  year  after  a  king's  accession 

was  named  after  him,  then  follow  in  succeeding  years  the  names 

of  different  officials  in  the  order  of  their  rank  and  importance  after 

the  king.^ 

Now  by  comparing  the  same  facts  chronicled  both  in  the 
Assyrian  sources  and  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  the  dates  B.C. 
of  the  different  recorded  events  of  Assyrian  history  can  also 
be  determined  with  certainty.  Thus  the  Eponym  lists  are 
complete  from  the  years  893-666  B.C. ;  also  for  shorter  inter- 
vals before  and  after  those  dates. 

The  connection  of  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy  with  the  Assyrian 
records  is  as  follows.  In  the  former  the  succession  of  Arkeanos  of 
Babylon  ( =  Sargina  in  the  Babylonian  list  of  names  =  Sargon  of 
Assyria)  is  determined  as  709  B.C.  In  the  Assyrian  records  the 
year  in  which  Sargon  became  king  of  Babylon  is  stated  to  be  the 
13th  year  of  his  rule  of  Assyria.     This  accordingly  fixes  the  date 

1  Cf.  Rogers,  Cuneiform  ParaUels,  231  flf. 


APPENDIX  C  337 

of  his  accession  as  king  of  Assyria  in  722  (721)  b.c,  and  gives  the 
key  to  the  rest  of  Assyrian  events  in  terms  of  years  B.C. 

The  accuracy  of  the  Assyrian  chronology  thus  determined  is 
further  confirmed  by  the  entry  in  the  Eponym  hst,  given  above, 
for  the  year  763  b.c.  of  an  ecHpse  of  the  sun  in  the  month  Sivan 
(=  June).^  Astronomers  have  computed  that  an  ecHpse  of  the 
sun  almost  total  for  Nineveh  and  vicinity  occurred  June  15,  763  b.c. 

Now  the  determination  of  the  Assyrian  chronology  by  this 
process  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  dating  of  events  in 
Biblical  history,  for  Assyria  came  in  contact  with  Israel 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  B.C.,  and  there  are 
found  in  its  inscriptions  references  not  only  to  different 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  {e.g.  Ahab,  Jehu,  Hezekiah,  etc.), 
but  also  to  specific  occurrences  in  the  history  of  those  King- 
doms, which  are  definitely  dated  in  the  Assyrian  records. 
The  result  is  that  a  number  of  important  Bibhcal  events 
are  established  in  this  period,  which  form  the  basis  in  the 
endeavor  to  fix  the  time  of  others  by  the  aid  of  the  Bibhcal 
chronological  data. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  dates  thus  es- 
tabUshed :  — 

854  B.C.     Ahab  of  Israel  at  the  battle  of  Karkar. 
842  B.C.     Jehu  pays  tribute  to  Assjma  (probably  on  his  accession). 
738  B.C.     Menahem  pays  tribute  to  Ass>Tia. 
722-21  B.C.     Capture  of  Samaria  by  Assyria. 
701  B.C.     Invasion  of  Judah  by  Sennacherib  of  Assyria. 


2.  The  Old  Testament  Chronological  Data  as  Adjusted 
TO  Outside  Sources  of  Help 

Having  thus  described  the  important  help  received  from 
these  outside  sources,  in  establishing  the  dates  of  a  number  of 
important  events  in  O.  T.  history,  it  now  remains  to  consider 
the  Bibhcal  chronological  data,  especially  as  related  to  these 
fixed  years,  —  the  difficulties  involved  and  the  adjustments 
which  have  to  be  made.  For  convenience  pre-exilic  history 
may  be  separated  into  two  main  sections,  viz.  the  period 
preceding  and  the  period  following  the  division  of  the 
Kingdom  (1  Ki.  12).     The  date  937  b.c.  for  this  event  is 

1  For  the  Assyro-Babylonian  months,  see  p.  205. 


338  APPENDIX   C 

one  upon  which  there  is  quite  general  agreement  (cf .  below, 
p.  344,  B.  a.). 

A.  The  period  preceding  937  B.C.  While  the  chronology 
of  the  main  O.  T.  events  after  this  year  can  be  determined 
as  a  whole  with  a  good  deal  of  certainty  (though  in  many 
places  the  opinion  of  authorities  varies  and  approximate 
dating  is  all  that  can  be  assured  ^),  on  the  other  hand  for  the 
general  period  before  this  time  there  is  much  uncertainty  and 
considerable  variation  in  the  dates  assigned  to  different 
events.  This  is  due  to  two  causes  :  1st,  the  character  of  the 
chronological  data  given  in  the  BibHcal  records ;  and  2nd,  the 
difficulty  in  part  of  synchronizing  the  occurrences  of  this 
period  with  outside  history. ^  The  different  sub-divisions  of 
this  general  period  prior  to  937  B.C.  may  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

a.  The  Patriarchal  period.     (Cf.  Gen.  12-50.) 

Here  the  events  of  early  Hebrew  history,  according  to  the 
Biblical  narratives,  come  in  contact  with  the  outside  world 
at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  period.  The  first  is 
recorded  in  Gen.  14  where  Abram  is  represented  as  being 
a  contemporary  of  Hammurabi  (  =  Amraphel  of  Gen.  14  : 1) 
of  Babylon,  whose  reign  until  recently  was  placed  c.  2300  or 
2200  B.C.  Further  research  has  led  to  the  conclusion  on  the 
part  of  Assyriologists  that  his  date  belongs  later,  c.  2100  or 
between  2000  and  1900  b.c.^  But  the  opinion  of  scholars  is 
divided  regarding  the  historical  trustworthiness  of  Gen. 
14  (see  p.  31,  ii.),  and  hence  the  time  of  Abraham  cannot 
be  fixed  with  certainty  by  this  BibHcal  reference. 

The  other  point  of  contact  with  the  outside  world  is  found 
at  the  end  of  this  period  in  the  narratives  of  Joseph  at  the 
court  of  Pharaoh  (Gen.  41  ff.).  But  here  there  is  a  two-fold 
difficulty ;  first  in  reference  to  the  identification  of  this 
Pharaoh,  and  secondly  (in  a  less  degree)  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  Egyptian  chronology,  as  there  is  considerable 
variation  in  the  dates  assigned  by  Egyptologists  to  this  early 
period.     Note,  however,  the  fact  that  Petrie  and  Breasted 

1  Cf.  the  statement  of  E.  L.  Curtis,  pp.  134  f.,  iv.  h. 

2  Cf.  the  conclusion  of  Sayce  that  nothing  can  be  learned  "from  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  about  the  chronology  of  Israel  down  to  the 
time  of  David."     His  Early  Hist.  Hebrs.  143-146. 

3  King's  dates  =  c.  1958-1916  b.c.  (Chrons.  Early  Bab.  Kings).  Cf. 
Skinner,  Gen.  xiv,  n.  f. 


APPENDIX  C  339 

agree  approximately  in  their  dating  here  (cf.  next  para- 
graphs). 

If  Apepa  II,  the  last  important  Hyksos  king,  is  identified 
as  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph,  then  the  date  of  his  career  may  be 
placed  with  reasonable  certainty  c.  1600  b.c.  (shortly  before 
or  after  that  year),  as  there  is  quite  general  agreement  that 
the  domination  of  these  kings  ended  about  that  time.  See 
also  pp.  32  f.,  ii.  a. 

If  Amenophis  IV  of  the  18th  dynasty  is  regarded  as  the 
more  probable  ruler  (Winckler,  Sayce,  Kent,  etc.),  there  is 
more  agreement  as  to  the  dates  of  his  reign  among  recent 
scholars,  cf.  1383-1365  B.C.  (Petrie) ;  1375-1358  b.c. 
(Breasted). 

Turning  now  to  the  Biblical  chronological  data  for  this 
period  the  most  systematic  computations  are  found  in  P, 
the  latest  of  the  sources,  but  there  is  no  certainty  that  they 
rest  upon  reliable  tradition.^  It  is  at  least  an  interesting 
relation,  however,  to  be  noticed  that  if  Abraham  is  considered 
a  contemporary  of  Hammurabi,  c.  1900  b.c,  the  215  years 
assigned  to  the  Patriarchal  period  by  P  bring  Joseph  into 
approximate  synchronism  with  the  beginning  of  the  Hyksos 
dynasty,  which  Breasted  dates  tentatively  c.  1675-1575  b.c. 
Cf.  however  Petrie  =  2098-1587  b.c. 

The  number  215  is  based  on  the  foIlo\ving  references  in  P :  — 
Abraham's  age  when  he  left  Haran  =  75  (Gen.  12 : 4) ;  Isaac's 
birth  25  years  later  (21 :  5) ;  Jacob's  birth  60  years  later  (25  :  266) ; 
and  the  migration  to  Egypt  130  years  after  that  (47  :  9,  28). ^ 

The  period  of  Primitive  times,  Gen.  1-11.  These  chapters  are 
now  so  generally  recognized  as  parabolical  rather  than  historical 
in  character  that  their  consideration  in  the  chronology  of  the  0.  T. 
may  reasonablj^  be  relegated  to  a  subordinate  place.^  According 
to  P,  between  the  Creation  of  man  and  the  Flood  =  1656  years ; 
from  the  Flood  to  the  call  of  Abram  =  365,  a  total  of  2021  years. 
This  result  is  based  on  the  genealogical  lists  of  chaps.  5  and  11  :  10  ff. 

1  According  to  McNeile  the  chronology  of  P  is  discredited  by  (a)  "the 
great  length  of  life  attributed  to  the  patriarchs  "  (Abraham  =  175  years, 
Gen.  25 :  7 ;  Isaac  =  180,  35 :  28 ;  Jacob  =  147,  47  :  28)  and  (6)  "by  the 
fact  that  his  dates  appear  to  be  arrived  at  by  an  artificial  system  of  com- 
putation."    Cf.  his  Ex.  76. 

2  For  the  conflicts  between  the  presuppositions  of  JE  and  the  chrono- 
logical data  of  P  in  Gen.  12  ff.,  cf.  Driver,  Gen.  149.  212,  262,  365,  n.  1, 
368;   cf.  also  Ency.  Brit.  iii.  8666  (Driver). 

'  Cf.  the  statement,  pp.  8  f . 


340  APPENDIX  C 

together  with  7 :  6 ;  12:46.  The  difficulties  here  are  ^rsf,  the  great 
age  attributed  to  the  antediluvians  in  chap.  5;  cf.  also  the  ages 
in  11 :  10  ff.,  upon  which  the  above  computation  is  based,  which 
modern  scholars  consider  must  be  founded  upon  some  artificial, 
chronological  scheme  that  is  not  to  be  taken  Uterally.  But 
secondly,  even  if  these  numbers  are  taken  literally  and  c.  1900  B.C. 
is  granted  as  the  date  of  Abraham,  the  result  (1900  -h  2021) 
c.  3921  B.C.  for  the  creation  of  man  is  regarded  as  a  date  much 
too  late  in  the  light  of  the  early  civilizations  of  Babylonia  and 
Egypt,  and  the  results  of  geological  investigation.  This  is  true 
even  for  Ussher's  date  4004  b.c.  or  for  the  earlier  calculations  on 
the  basis  of  the  Samaritan  and  LXX  texts.^  ^ 

The  following  judgment  by  so  careful  a  student  as  Driver  regard- 
ing this  early  period,  which  is  in  accord  with  Sayce's  view  cited 
above,^  is  very  significant.  ''The  only  conclusion  which  the  facts 
thus  summed  up  justify  is  that  the  chronology  of  the  Book  of 
Genesis,  —  which  is,  in  effect,  P's  chronology,  —  in  spite  of  the 
ostensible  precision  of  its  details,  has  no  historical  value.  .  .  . 
It  is  an  artificial  system,  which  must  have  been  arrived  at  in  some 
way  by  computation ;  though  the  data  upon  which  it  was  calcu- 
lated have  not  at  present  been  ascertained."  ^ 

h.  The  period  of  the  Exodus  and  the  desert  wanderings 
(Ex.-Deut.  in  part). 

In  this  period  the  events  of  Hebrew  history  are  associated 
very  definitely  with  Egypt  in  the  narratives  of  the  Oppression 
and  Exodus  of  the  Israehtes  (Ex.  1-14) .  But  the  same  uncer- 
tainty in  measure  exists  here  as  in  the  case  of  Joseph,  regard- 
ing the  identification  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  view  which  is 
most  commonly  held  is  that  Rameses  II  of  the  19th  dynasty 
is  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression,  and  his  son  and  successor, 
Merneptah,  is  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  whose  dates  accord- 
ing to  Breasted  are  respectively  1292-1225  and  c.  1225-1215 
B.C.  Hence  sometime  within  the  century  1300-1200  B.C. 
for  these  Biblical  events  seems  a  reasonable  conclusion. 

Cf.  the  fact  that  some  scholars  place  the  Oppression  and  Exodus 
under   earher   Pharaohs,   e.g.   between    1400-1250   b.c.^     Others 

1  According  to  the  Samaritan  text  from  the  Creation  of  man  to  the 
Flood  =  1307  years ;  from  the  Flood  to  the  call  of  Abraham  =  1015  =  a 
total  of  2322  years.  For  the  corresponding  periods  the  LXX  gives  2262 
+  1145  =  a  total  of  3407  years. 

2  Cf.  the  excellent  discussion  of  this  topic  in  Driver,  Gen.  xxxi  ff.,  cf. 
XXV  ff .  3  See  p.  338,  n.  2.  *  Cf .  Driver,  Ibid.,  xxx. 

5  Cf.  Robinson,  Deut.,  etc.,  262  f.  (  =  1400-1250  b.c,  the  period  within 
which  Isr.  settled  in  Palestine). 


APPENDIX  C  341 

again,  while  taking  Rameses  II  as  the  oppressor,  put  the  Exodus 
in  the  time  of  some  Pharaoh  later  than  Merneptah,  e.g.  Rameses  III 
(McCurdy,  but  note  his  date  =  c.  1200  b.c). 

Cf.  also  c.  1300  ff.  B.C.  for  the  Oppression  and  c.  1225  b.c.  for 
the  Exodus,  p.  34,  ii.  a.  and  p.  35,  ii.  a.^ 

The  Biblical  data  bearing  on  this  period,  which  also  involve 
complicated  problems,  are  as  follows.  First,  the  statement 
that  the  founding  of  Solomon's  temple  was  480  years  after 
the  Exodus  (1  Ki.  6  :  1  =  R^^?)  2  t^^  ^ime  of  the  founding 
of  the  Temple  is  placed  now  in  the  first  part  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  e.g.  c.  975  b.c.  (Curtis),  or  c.  960  b.c.  (McCurdy), 
reckoning  backward  from  dates  fixed  by  the  aid  of  Assyrian 
chronology  in  the  Divided  Kingdom.  This  would  bring  the 
Exodus  c.  1450  B.C.,  which  is  regarded  by  practically  all 
scholars  as  a  date  entirely  too  early. 

Cf.  the  conclusion  of  Curtis  that  300  instead  of  480  years  is  a 
more  correct  estimate  of  the  time  between  these  two  events.  Mc- 
Curdy thinks  that  480  is  twice  too  great  a  figure.  Cf.  his  date 
for  the  Exodus,  c.  1200  B.C.,  and  for  the  building  of  the  Temple, 
c.  960  B.C. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  480  does  not  harmonize  with  the 
detailed  Biblical  chronology  for  this  period  =  40  years  in 
the  desert  (Num.  14:  33  f.,  etc.)  ;  7(?)  for  the  conquest  of 
Palestine  (Josh.  14 : 6-15,  cf.  Deut.  2 :  14) ;  410  for  the 
period  of  the  Judges  (cf .  below  p.  343) ;  40  for  Eli's  judgeship 
(1  Sam.  4 :  18) ;  20  or  more  for  Samuel  (1  Sam.  7 : 2,  15) ; 
20(?)  for  Saul;  40  for  David  (1  Ki.  2:  11)  -|-  4  years  of 
Solomon's  reign  =  581  years. 

It  is  the  view  of  many  scholars  that  the  480  years  represent  an 
artificial  computation,  viz.  a  period  of  12  generations  [cf.  above 
on  the  use  of  the  number  40  as  a  round  number,  p.  334  (6)].  Cf. 
also  the  fact  that  on  the  basis  of  the  Biblical  chronology  (espec. 
that  of  the  Southern  Kingdom  =  Judah),  the  period  from  the 
founding  of  the  Temple  to  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  in 
538  B.C.,  followed  by  the  return  of  the  Exiles,  c.  536  b.c  (which 

1  Cf.  the  view  of  Toff  teen  of  two  Exodi,  —  according  to  the  data  fur- 
nished by  JED  =  1447  b.c,  cf.  beginning  of  oppression,  c.  1566  b.c,  and 
settlement  in  Egypt,  1877  b.c  According  to  P  the  Exodus,  c.  1144  b.c  ; 
cf.  beginning  of  the  oppression,  1183  b.c,  and  the  settlement  in  Egypt,  c. 
1340-24  B.C.     Cf.  his  Historic  Exodus,  223  ff.,  cf.  270. 

2  According  to  the  LXX,  440  years.  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  3,  §  1,  gives 
592  years. 


342  APPENDIX  C 

marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  Jewish  history)  =  also 
480  years,  viz.  — 

36-37  years  =  balance  of  Solomon's  reign. 

260  years  =  from  division  of  the  Kingdom  to  the  fall  of  Samaria. 

133J  years  =  from  the  fall  of  Samaria  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

50  years  =  length  of  the  Exile,  586-c.  536  b.c.^ 

Secondly y  the  data  more  immediately  relating  to  this 
period,  e.g.  the  number  of  years  attributed  to  the  residence 
of  the  Israehtes  in  Egypt.  As  previously  noticed,  the 
sources  vary  in  their  statements  from  430  (or  400)  years  to 
four  generations  (=  100-150  years).  Gen.  15:13-16;  Ex. 
12  :40.  [See  p.  333  (a).^]  Taking  c.  1225  B.C.  as  a  tenta- 
tive date  for  the  Exodus  (see  p.  35,  ii.  a.)  and  430  or  400  years 
as  the  length  of  residence  in  Egypt  and  the  result  places  the 
Pharaoh  of  Joseph  within  the  Hyksos  period,  according  to 
Breasted's  dating  for  that  dynasty  (c.  1675-1575  B.C.). 
This  harmonizes  with  the  traditional  view  of  this  Pharaoh. 
On  the  other  hand,  starting  with  c.  1225  B.C.  and  taking  the 
shorter  estimation  of  100-150  years  and  the  date  resulting 
harmonizes  with  Amenophis  IV  (1375-58,  b.c.  Breasted) 
as  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph.  Thus  is  demonstrated  again  the 
uncertain  and  unsatisfactory  character  of  the  early  Biblical 
chronological  data.     (See  also  pp.  32  f.,  ii.  a.) 

The  time  occupied  by  the  residence  at  Sinai  and  in  the 
desert  is  given  as  40  years  (Num.  14 :  34 ;  33 :  38  =  P ; 
14 :  33  =  JE  (or  P) ;  Josh.  5:6  =  D^).  This  probably  is 
another  instance  of  the  use  of  a  round  number. 

c.  The  period  of  the  conquest  of  Palestine,  Joshua  and  Judg. 
1:1-2:  5. 

Taking  c.  1225  B.C.  as  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  and  the  40 
years  at  Sinai  and  in  the  desert  as  a  round  number,  then 
c.  1200  B.C.  may  be  assigned  as  the  approximate  date  of  the 
Conquest,  though  authorities  vary  between  1200  and  c.  1150 
B.C.  Cf.  further  on  this  point  and  on  the  calculation  of 
7  years  for  the  time  occupied  by  the  Conquest,  pp.  42  f.,  iv.  a. 

1  Cf.  EBi,  i.  782  f.  (Marti).  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.2  146  ff.,  etc., 
and  Comms.  on  1  Ki.  6:1. 

2  According  to  the  LXX  of  Ex.  12 :  40  the  430  years  include  "the  so- 
journing of  the  children  of  Israel  which  they  sojourned  in  the  land  of 
Egypt  and  in  the  land  of  Canaan,''  i.e.  430-215  ( =  Patriarchal  period) 
=  215  years  in  Egypt. 


APPENDIX  C  343 

d.  The  period  of  the  Judges.  Judg.  2  :  6-21 :  25  +  1  Sam. 
1-7. 

While  there  is  much  BibUcal  chronological  data  for  this 
time  in  Hebrew  history,  unfortunately  they  raise  only  diffi- 
culties instead  of  being  a  help  in  determining  the  time  and 
limits  of  this  period.  By  adding  the  number  of  years  as- 
signed to  the  different  judges,  in  the  book  of  Judges,  to  the 
different  terms  of  oppression  recorded,  a  total  of  410  years  is 
obtained.  But  evidently  this  period  could  not  have  been 
so  extensive,  as  this  estimate  would  place  it  too  far  back 
reckoning  from  later  fixed  dates.  Hence  it  is  customary  by 
modern  scholars  to  assign  a  shorter  term  for  the  period  of  the 
Judges,  varying  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  centuries  (  =  book 
of  Judges,  e.g.  Wade,  McFadyen)  to  ''not  much  more  than 
a  century"  ( =  up  to  the  accession  of  Saul,  e.g.  Deborah  to 
Saul,  c.  1130-1030  B.C.  according  to  McCurdy). 

To  Eli  40  years  are  given  (1  Sam.  4 :  18,  cf.  LXX  =  20 
years)  and  to  Samuel  20  or  more  years  ( =  inference  from 
1  Sam.  7:2,  15).  These  again  are  probably  to  be  consid- 
ered as  round  numbers.  The  tentative  dates  assigned  in 
this  volume  for  the  whole  period  =  c.  1190-1050  (or  1040) 
B.C.     Cf.  pp.  51  f.,  iv.  a.  h. 

The  following  are  the  detailed  references  in  Judges  for  the 
numbers  from  which  the  total  of  410  years  is  obtained.  Oppres- 
sion 8  years  (3:8),  Othniel  40  (3:11),  oppression  18  (3:14), 
Ehud  80  (3  :  30),  oppression  20  (4  :  2),  Deborah  40  (5  :  31),  oppres- 
sion 7  (6:1),  Gideon  40  (8:28),  Abimelech  3  (9:22),  Tola 
23  (10 :  2),  Jair  22  (10 : 3),  oppression  18  (10 :  8),  Jephthah  6 
(12:7),  Ibzan  7  (12:9),  Elon  10  (12:11),  Abdon  8  (12:14), 
oppression  40  (13  : 1),  Samson  20  (15  :  30  =  16  :  31). 

In  explanation  of  this  excessive  total  two  suggestions  are 
usually  offered,  viz.  the  use  of  40  and  its  multiples  (20,  80)  as 
round  numbers,  and  the  probability  that  some  of  the  judges  at 
least  were  "local  and  contemporaneous  with  others."  ^ 

e.  The  period  of  the  United  Kingdom.  1  Sam.  8-1 
Ki.  11. 

The  dates  assigned  to  this  period  in  this  volume  are  c.1040- 
937  B.C.     For  the  date  937  B.C.,  cf.  below  under  Bj  a.     For 

1  For  various  attempts  made  to  adjust  the  chronological  problem  of  the 
time  of  the  Judges,  cf.  Comms.,  Introds.  and  Bible  Diets,  on  the  book  of 
Judges.     See  also  Kittel,  Hist.  Hebrs.  ii.  8  ff. 


344  APPENDIX  C 

the  probable  length  of  this  period  and  the  difficulty  connected 
with  Saul's  reign  (cf.  pp.  75  f.,  iv.  a.  c). 

B.  The  period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom,  1  Ki.  12-2  Ki.  25. 

a.  The  period  between  the  division  of  the  Kingdom  and  the 
accession  of  Jehu  of  Israel  and  Athaliah  of  Judah  (1  Ki.  12- 
2  Ki.  11 :  1  ff.),  937-842  B.C. 

The  date  842  b.c.  for  the  accession  of  Jehu  of  Israel  (2  Ki. 
9  f.,  synchronous  with  Athaliah' s  accession  in  Judah,  2 
Ki.  11:1  ff.)  is  determined  by  the  Assyrian  chronology,  as 
in  that  year  Jehu  paid  tribute  to  Assyria,  and  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  this  was  given  most  probably  at  the  time  he 
ascended  the  throne.  The  date  937  B.C.  is  determined  by 
reckoning  back  from  842  B.C.  95  years,  i.e.  the  length  of  time 
assigned  to  the  reigns  of  the  different  kings  of  Judah  in  that 
period  ( =  Rehoboam  17,  Abijam  3,  Asa  41,  Jehoshaphat  25, 
Joram  8  and  Ahaziah  1). 

The  approximate  correctness  of  this  date,  937  b.c,  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  invasion  of  Shishak  of  Egypt 
(c.  950-930  B.C. ;  cf.  945-924  =  Breasted)  in  the  fifth  year 
of  Rehoboam's  reign  (1  Ki.  14 :  25)  harmonizes  with  this 
computation. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  extent  of  this  period  following  the 
line  of  the  kings  of  Israel  is  98  years  ( =  Jeroboam  22 ; 
Nadab  2  ;  Baasha  24  ;  Elah  2  ;  Omri  12  ;  Ahab  22  ;  Aha- 
ziah 2;  Joram  12).  As  the  number  of  years  recorded  in 
connection  with  the  kingdom  of  Judah  is  generally  accepted 
as  correct  for  this  period,  different  adjustments  are  made 
in  the  Hne  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  order  to  make  its 
chronology  correspond.^ 

^  According  to  some  scholars  the  actual  number  of  years  between  the 
division  of  the  Kingdom  and  842  (or  843)  b.c.  =  89.  This  is  based  on  the 
view  that  in  the  Biblical  reckoning  the  calendar  year,  in  which  one  reign 
terminated  and  another  began,  was  counted  as  a  full  year  in  each  of  those 
reigns,  i.e.  was  counted  twice.  Hence  in  order  to  obtain  the  exact  length 
of  time  of  this  period  a  year  ought  to  be  deducted  from  the  length 
ascribed  to  each  reign.  Thus  95  years  for  Judah  —  6  kings  =  89  years  ; 
and  98  years  for  Israel  —  9  kings  =  89  years.  According  to  this  method 
of  computing  the  division  of  the  Kingdom  =  932  or  931  b.c.  See  es- 
pecially Skinner,  Ki.  40  f . 

It  may  be  added  that  this  method  of  counting  parts  of  years  as  full 
years,  i.e.  predating,  was  evidently  followed  in  some  cases ;  e.g.  the  siege 
of  Samaria  which  began  in  the  4th  and  ended  in  the  6th  year  of  Heze- 
kiah's  reign,  according  to  2  Ki.  18  :  9  f.,  is  reckoned  as  a  three-years'  siege. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Assyrians  usually  followed  the  method  of  post- 


APPENDIX  C  345 

For  example,  the  death  of  Ahab  (1  Ki.  22  :  29  ff.)  is  usually  dated 
in  854  or  853  b.c.  From  the  Assyrian  records  it  is  known  that  he 
was  a  member  of  a  coalition  of  kings  of  Western  Asia  which  fought 
against  Shalmaneser  III  at  the  battle  of  Karkar  854  b.c.  Be- 
tween 853  and  842  b.c.  ( =  Jehu's  accession)  =  a  total  of  11  years. 
But  according  to  the  Biblical  chronology  between  these  two  events 
fall  the  reigns  of  Ahaziah,  2  years,  and  Joram  12  (1  Ki.  22 :  51 ; 
2  Ki.  3  :  1)  =  a  total  of  14  years. 

In  order  to  meet  this  difficulty  different  solutions  have  been 
suggested;  e.g.  (a)  that  the  two  years  assigned  to  Ahaziah  = 
fractions  of  two  consecutive  years ;  or  (6)  that  Joram  on  account 
of  Ahaziah's  injury  (2  Ki.  1 : 2)  became  regent,  and  that  the  12 
years  ascribed  to  his  reign  include  his  regency,  i.e.  that  his  reign 
actually  =  10  years. 

According  to  the  statement  in  2  Ki.  3 : 4  f.  (cf.  1:1),  Moab 
under  its  king  Mesha  rebelled  against  Israel  after  Ahab's  death. 
The  Moabite  stone  discovered  at  Dibon  in  1868,  which  gives 
Mesha's  account  of  his  struggle  mth  Israel,  states  that  Moab  was 
oppressed  40  years,  during  the  days  of  Omri  and  half  the  days  of 
his  son.  Taking  this  statement  literally  it  conflicts  with  the 
Biblical  chronology,  as  the  sum  of  the  years  assigned  to  Omri  and 
Ahab  amounts  to  only  34  ( =  Omri  12,  and  Ahab  22 ;  1  Ki.  16 : 
23,  29). 

Among  solutions  offered  may  be  mentioned  (a)  the  assigning  of 
a  longer  period  to  Omri's  reign,  e.g.  c.  25  years,  by  taking  10  from 
Baasha's  reign  of  24  years  (1  Ki.  15  :  33),  dating  it  c.  900-875  b.c. 
(cf.  Whitehouse,  HDB,  iii.  620  f.) ;  and  (6)  the  identification  of 
''his  son"  (i.e.  Omri's  son),  mentioned  in  the  inscription,  with 
Omri's  grandson,  Jehoram,  passing  over  Ahab  and  Ahaziah. 
This  would  harmonize  with  2  Ki.  1:1  and  3 : 4  ff.  (cf.  Curtis  in 
HDB,  i.  402),  etc.i 

Mention  may  be  made  of  the  difficult  chronological  prob- 
lems raised  by  the  synchronisms  of  the  Divided  Kingdom  in 
different  places,  though  their  discussion  will  be  omitted  in 
this  survey,  since  they  relate  to  minor  points  of  dating,  whose 
consideration  would  extend  this  conspectus  to  too  great  a 

dating,  i.e.  "to  call  the  period  between  the  accession  and  the  1st  new  year's 
day  '  the  beginning  of  the  reign ' ;  while  the  year  from  the  new  year's  day 
was  called  'the  1st  year,'  and  the  following  ones  were  numbered  succes- 
sively from  it."  It  is  quite  possible  that  both  methods  were  used  by  the 
Hebrews.  Cf.  HDB,  i.  400  f.  (Curtis) ;  EBi,  i.  781  f.  (Marti).  McCurdy, 
HPM,  ii.  pp.  420  ff.  (n.  6  to  §  638),  etc. 

^  Note  Sayee's  view  that  the  time  during  which  Moab  was  oppressed 
was  not  more  than  15  years.     See  ref .  p.  334,  n.  ^ 


346  APPENDIX  C 

length.     (Cf.  for  the  synchronistic  method,  1  Ki.  15 : 1,  9, 
25,  etc.,  continuing  up  to  2  Ki.  18.) 

As  an  illustration,  cf.  in  1  Ki.  22  the  synchronism  of  vs.  51  with 
vs.  41.  According  to  the  latter  the  1st  year  of  Jehoshaphat  = 
the  4th  of  Ahab;  hence  the  17th  of  Jehoshapfiat  (vs.  51)  would 
equal  the  20th  or  21st  of  Ahab,  leaving  still  1  or  2  years  to  Ahab 
(cf.  his  reign  of  22  years,  1  Ki.  16 :  29)  instead  of  coinciding  with 
the  end  of  his  reign,  etc.  Cf .  Comms.  on  Kings.  Kautzsch,  LOT, 
73  f.     EBI,  i.  778  if.  (Marti),  etc. 

h.  The  period  between  the  accessions  of  Jehu  of  Israel  and 
Athaliah  of  Judah  on  the  one  hand  and  the  downfall  of  Israel 
on  the  other  (2  Ki.  9-17)  =  842-722  (721)  b.c. 

The  dates  842  and  722  (721)  b.c.  (  =  capture  of  Samaria  by 
the  Assyrians)  are  definitely  fixed  by  the  Assyrian  chronology. 
This  gives  an  intervening  period  of  120-1  years.  But  the 
length  of  time  between  these  events,  adding  the  years  given 
to  the  different  rulers  of  Judah,  is  a  total  of  165  years  ( = 
Athaliah  6 ;  Joash  40 ;  Amaziah  29  ;  Azariah  (Uzziah)  52 ; 
Jotham  16 ;  Ahaz  16  +  6  years  of  Hezekiah's  reign,  i,e.  the 
year  of  his  reign  in  which  Samaria  fell,  according  to  2  Ki. 
18  :  10).  And  here  again  the  computation  in  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  gives  a  variant  total,  viz.  143  years  and  7  months 
( =  Jehu  28 ;  Jehoahaz  17 ;  Joash  16 ;  Jeroboam  II  41 ; 
Zechariah  6  mos. ;  Shallum  1  mo. ;  Menahem  10  years ; 
Pekahiah  2 ;  Pekah  20  ;  and  Hoshea  9). 

A  shortening  is  therefore  necessary  in  the  line  of  both 
Kingdoms  in  order  to  conform  to  the  number  of  years  which  is 
determined  by  the  Assyrian  records.  The  following  adjust- 
ments in  the  reigns  of  the  two  Kingdoms  have  been  suggested 
accordingly  by  different  scholars. 

First,  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah :  — 

(a)  The  reign  of  Amaziah  of  Judah.  His  reign  of  29  years 
(2  Ki.  14 : 1  ff.),  adding  the  number  of  years  assigned  to  the  dif- 
ferent kings  in  this  line  from  842  b.c,  given  above,  would  be  796- 
767  B.C.  It  is  commonly  held,  however,  that  this  makes  its  ter- 
mination too  late.  It  is  quite  generally  believed  that  the  reigns  of 
his  successor  Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II  of  Israel  were  practically 
parallel  in  duration,  i.e.  that  Amaziah's  rule  ended  c.  782  (?)  b.c, 
thus  making  its  term  about  14  years  in  length. 

In  favor  of  this  view  may  be  mentioned,  1st,  the  probability  that 


APPENDIX  C  347 

the  war  of  Joash  with  Amaziah  (2  Ki.  14  :  8  ff.)  was  near  the  end 
of  his  (Joash's)  reign,  subsequent  to  his  victories  over  the  Syrians 
(=  Damascus,  2  Ki.  13 :  24  f.) ;  2nd,  the  presumption  that  Ama- 
ziah's  death  by  conspiracy  (2  Ki.  14  :  17  ff.)  was  the  outcome  of  his 
defeat  by  Joash ;  and  3rd,  the  fact  estabhshed  by  Assyrian  chro- 
nology that  Ahaz  was  king  of  Judah  as  early  as  c.  735  B.C.  [cf .  below 
(a),  2nd].  This  necessitates  an  abridgment  and  adjustment  of  the 
years  assigned  to  the  kings  of  Judah,  from  Amaziah  to  Ahaz. 
As  given  in  2  Kings  the  total  number  of  years  for  these  reigns 
=  97  (=  Amaziah  29;  Uzziah  52;  Jotham  16).  See  further 
under  (6). 

(6)  The  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham.  The  number  of  years 
assigned  to  these  two  kings  =  52  and  16  respectively  (2  Ki.  15  :  2, 
33).  Even  with  the  shortening  of  Amaziah's  reign,  adopted  above, 
the  length  of  time  attributed  to  Uzziah-Jotham  is  too  great,  as 
Ahaz  was  on  the  throne  of  Judah  c.  735  B.C.  A  common  and  rea- 
sonable explanation  for  this  difficulty  is  that  Jotham  may  have 
served  as  regent  during  his  father's  illness  (2  Ki.  15 :  5),  and  that 
the  16  years  attributed  to  his  reign  included  his  regency  +  the 
years  he  was  king  alone  after  his  father's  death.  Accordingly 
Uzziah's  death  is  assigned  c.  740  B.C. ;  Jotham's  regency  beginning 
c.  750  B.C.     This  makes  his  rule  as  sole  king  c.  740-735  B.C. 

(c)  The  reign  of  Ahaz  =  16  years  (2  Ki.  16  :  2)  =  c.  735-719  B.C. 
For  the  difficulties  involved  here  with  other  chronological  data 
connected  with  Hezekiah's  reign,  cf .  below  pp.  350  f.,  (6). 

Secondly,  adjustments  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel :  — 

The  adjustments  in  the  line  of  Israel's  kings  are  usually  made  in 
the  reigns  between  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II  =  c.  740  b.c.  and  the 
capture  of  Samaria  722  (721)  b.c.  The  length  of  time  assigned 
to  this  period  in  Kings  is  entirely  too  great  (even  if  the  termination 
of  Jeroboam's  reign  is  dated  c.  745  or  749  B.C.  as  some  scholars  pre- 
fer), viz.  c.  41  years  (  =  Zechariah  6  mos. ;  Shallum  1  mo. ;  Mena- 
hem  10  years ;  Pekahiah  2 ;  Pekah  20 ;  Hoshea  9),  whereas  the 
actual  time  intervening  =  c.  18  years. 

(a)  Assyrian  chronology  hearing  on  this  period. 

1st.  Menahem's  tribute  to  Pul  ( =  Pulu)  =  Tiglath-pileser  IV 
of  Assyria  (2  Ki.  15 :  19,  cf.  vs.  29),  738  b.c.  A  reasonable  infer- 
ence is  that  this  date  must  have  been  soon  after  his  accession,  as 
according  to  the  BibHcal  statement  the  tribute  was  given  to  secure 
the  Assyrian  support  to  his  position  as  king  (vs.  19). 

2nd.  The  capture  of  Damascus  (2  Ki.  16 : 9)  after  a  two-years' 
siege,  733-732  b.c.  This  took  place  in  connection  with  events  in 
which  Ahaz  of  Judah  and  Pekah  of  Israel  were  concerned  (2  Ki. 
16 :  5  ff. ;  Isa.  7:1  ff.),  thus  placing  the  invasion  of  Israel  by  the 
Assyrians  (2  Ki.  15 :  29  f.),  probably  c.  734  b.c. 


348  APPENDIX  C 

3rd.  The  capture  of  Samaria  after  a  siege  of  3  years  (2  Ki.  17  : 
5  f.),  722-721  B.c.i  2 

(b)  Adjustments  of  the  Biblical  chronology  for  Israel  to  the  Assyr- 
ian  data. 

1st.  The  reigns  of  Menahem  and  Pekahiah.  As  noticed  above 
Menahem  was  reigning  in  738  B.C.,  as  he  paid  tribute  to  Assyria 
in  that  year.  His  second  successor  Pekah  was  involved  in  war 
with  Ahaz  of  Judah  in  735  or  734  b.c,  resulting  in  the  capture 
of  part  of  his  territory  by  AssjTia  (2  Ki.  15  :  29  f.).  The  termina- 
tion of  Pekahiah's  rule  and  the  accession  of  Pekah  may  be  placed 
with  confidence  c.  735  b.c.  The  2  years  attributed  to  Pekahiah 
(2  Ki.  15 :  23)  seem  correct,  thus  bringing  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  and  the  end  of  Menahem's  c.  737  b.c.  A  view  quite  generally 
held,  as  noted  above,  is  that  Menahem  probably  paid  tribute 
soon  after  he  became  king,  i.e.  that  he  ascended  the  throne  c.  740 
B.C.,  and  hence  that  the  10  years  given  to  his  reign  (2  Ki.  15 :  17) 
are  excessive,  unless  his  accession  is  dated  earher  and  the  number 
of  years  attributed  to  his  predecessor,  Jeroboam  II,  is  correspond- 
ingly reduced.  Perhaps  the  number  10  in  this  instance  is  to  be 
understood  as  a  round  number. 

2nd.  The  reigns  of  Pekah-Hoshea.  According  to  2  Ki.  15 :  27 
Pekah  ruled  20  years,  but  there  is  evidently  a  serious  error  in  this 

1  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  Nimroud  inscription  of  Tiglath-pileser 
IV  (745-727  B.C.),  Ahaz  of  Judah  is  mentioned,  with  other  neighboring 
kings,  as  paying  tribute  to  Assyria. 

2  So  (or  Seve)  of  Egypt  who  is  mentioned  as  a  contemporary  of  Hoshea 
of  Israel  (2  Ki.  17:4),  at  the  time  of  his  rebellion  against  Assyria,  has 
generally  been  identified  with  Sabako  (Shabako),  the  founder  of  the 
25th  dynasty.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  he  became  king  till 
somewhat  later  than  the  time  referred  to  in  2  Ki.  17 : 3  f.  =  demonstra- 
tion of  Assyria  against  Hoshea,  which  usually  is  supposed  to  have  oc- 
curred on  Shalmaneser's  accession,  727  b.c.  Breasted's  date  for  Sabako's 
accession  =  712  b.c.  One  explanation  is  that,  being  an  officer  of  im- 
portance, he  is  termed  king  here  incorrectly  by  anticipation  by  the 
compiler.  Another  view  is  that  the  reference  is  to  a  king  of  Mutsri  in 
North  Arabia,  not  of  Egypt  (  =  Mitsraim  in  Hebr.).  Owing  to  the  un- 
certainty here  this  Bibhcal  reference  is  of  little  use  for  the  chronology 
of  this  time.     Cf.  Comms.  on  Kings  in  loc. 

Further,  it  is  the  view  of  some  scholars  that  there  is  room  for  only  one 
campaign  of  Shalmaneser  (or  demonstration  of  force)  against  Hoshea, 
and  hence  no  place  for  the  interval  of  time  which  seems  to  be  presupposed 
between  the  events  of  2  Ki.  17,  vss.  3  and  4.  The  Assyrian  records  ex- 
pressly state  that  no  foreign  expeditions  were  made  in  726  b.c.  Various 
solutions  have  been  offered,  e.g.  (a)  that  2  Ki.  17 :  3  ff .  =  parallel  ac- 
counts, —  vss.  3-4  =  the  fate  of  the  king ;  vss.  5-6  (cf.  18 :  9-11)  =  fate 
of  Samaria  =  Winckler's  view  formerly.  (6)  The  view  that  "Shalmane- 
ser" is  to  be  omitted  from  vs.  3,  the  reference  being  to  Hoshea's  submis- 
sion to  Tiglath-pileser  upon  the  death  of  Pekah.  According  to  this  ex- 
planation 9  years  intervene  between  vss.  3  and  4  ( =  Kittel,  Winckler). 
Cf.  further  Comms.  on  Kings  in  loc. 


APPENDIX  C  349 

number.  His  death  occurred  in  connection  with  the  Assyrian 
invasion  of  his  kingdom  c.  734  B.C.  (2  Ki.  15  :  29  f.).  Cf.  Tiglath- 
pileser's  own  inscription  relating  to  this  event:  "as  Pekah, 
their  king,  they  had  deposed,  Hosea  I  estabhshed  as  king  over 
them."  Hence  Pekah  ruled  most  probably  c.  735-734  (733)  B.C. 
Cf .  above  under  (6)  1st,  for  the  probable  date  of  his  accession. ^ 

Taking  c.  734  B.C.  as  the  date  of  Hoshea's  accession,  the  9  years 
assigned  to  his  reign  (2  Ki.  17 :  1)  bring  its  end  c.  725  B.C.  This 
harmonizes  with  the  Bibhcal  statement  (2  Ki.  17 : 4  f.)  that  he 
was  taken  prisoner  in  the  year  the  siege  of  Samaria  began,  but  not 
with  other  chronological  data  that  the  capture  of  this  city  by  the 
Assyrians,  722-721  b.c,  occurred  in  the  9th  year  of  his  reign  (2  Ki. 
17  :  6a ;   18  :  10).     Cf.  also  p.  348,  n.  2,  second  paragraph. 

c.  The  chronology  of  the  surviving  kingdom  of  Judah  (2  Ki. 
18-25),  722  (721)-586  b.c. 

(a)  Assyro-Bahylonian  chronology  {cf.  Canon  of  Ptolemy) 
as  hearing  on  this  period. 

The  main  points  of  chronology,  established  by  extra- 
Biblical  sources,  which  help  to  correct  and  determine  the 
Biblical  dates  for  this  period,  are  as  follows :  — 

1st.  701  B.C.  The  invasion  of  Judah  by  Sennacherib  of  Assyria. 
Cf.  2  Ki.  18  :  13  ff .2 

2nd.  c.  607  b.c.     The  downfall  of  Assyria. 

3rd.  605  (604)  b.c.  The  accession  of  Nebuchadrezzar  of  Baby- 
lonia 605  (604)-562  (561)  b.c.  The  time  of  his  reign  is  deter- 
mined by  the  Ptolemaic  Canon.  Different  Bibhcal  writings  and 
events  are  dated  according  to  the  years  of  his  reign  {e.g.  Jer.  25  : 1 ; 
2  Ki.  24:126;   25:8,  etc.). 

4th.  605  (604)  B.C.  The  battle  of  Carchemish.  According  to 
Berosus  (as  cited  by  Josephus,  Ant.  x,  11,  §  1 ;  c.  Ap.  i.  19)  this 
battle  between  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians  occurred  in  the  last 
year  of  the  reign  of  Nabopolassar  (=  Nebuchadrezzar's  father 
and  predecessor).  Cf.  this  event  synchronized  with  the  4th  year 
of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  46  :  2). 

5th.     597  B.C.     1st  capture  of   Jerusalem   by  the   Chaldeans 

1  Another  solution  suggested  for  the  chronological  difficulties  here  is 
that  Pekahiah  and  Pekah  =  variant  names  for  the  same  person,  and  that 
therefore  the  Biblical  records  are  in  error  in  regarding  them  as  two  dis- 
tinct kings.  Cf.  the  similarity  in  the  events  of  the  two  reigns.  But  even 
on  this  theory  the  number  20  given  to  the  years  of  Pekah' s  reign  is  much 
too  great.     Cf.  EBi,  iii.  3643  (Cheyne),  whose  dates  are  735-730  (?)  b.c. 

-  Mention  is  made  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  of  Manasseh  of  Judah 
being  a  vassal  in  the  reigns  of  Esarhaddon  (681-668  b.c.)  and  of  Asshur- 
banipal  (668-626  b.c). 


350  APPENDIX  C 

(2  Ki.  24 :  10  ff.)  =  8th  year  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  reign  (vs.  126). 
Cf.  the  fact  that  Ezekiel  dates  his  messages  from  this  event  =lst 
captivity  of  the  Jews.     (Cf.  pp.  114  f. ;  171,  2.  B.) 

6th.  586  B.C.  The  second  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  its  destruc- 
tion =  19th  year  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  reign  (2  Ki.  25 :  1  ff.,  8  ff.). 

(b)  The  adjustment  of  the  Biblical  chronology  to  the  above 
dates, 

1st.  The  reign  of  Hezekiah.  If  c.  735  B.C.  is  taken  as  the  time 
of  the  accession  of  Ahaz  (cf .  above  p.  347,  (6)),  the  16  years  assigned 
to  his  reign  (2  Ki.  16  :  2)  bring  its  termination  and  the  accession  of 
Hezekiah  c.  719  B.C.  From  c.  719  B.C.  to  586  B.C.  [=  downfall 
of  Jerusalem,  cf.  above  (a),  6th]  =  c.  133  years.  This,  however, 
does  not  harmonize  with  the  length  of  time  given  for  the  kings  of 
this  period  ( =  Hezekiah  29 ;  Manasseh  55 ;  Amon  2 ;  Josiah 
31;  Jehoiakim  11;  Zedekiah  11)  =  139  years,  (a)  One  method 
of  meeting  this  difficulty  is  on  the  assumption  that  the  last  year 
of  each  king  and  the  1st  of  his  successor  were  the  same  ( =  pre- 
dating method,  cf.  p.  344,  n.  ^),  i.e.  the  deduction  of  one  year  from 
each  reign  from  Hezekiah  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in 
586  B.C.  gives  the  total  of  133  years.  586  B.C.  +  133  =  719  B.C. 
It  is  maintained  that,  since  this  period  is  comparatively  near  to  the 
compiler's  day,  the  number  of  years  he  assigns  to  the  different 
reigns  is  likely  to  be  correct,  especially  from  the  time  of  Josiah. 
The  date  719  b.c.  for  Hezekiah's  accession  is  adopted  in  this 
volume,  but  a  reduction  is  made  in  the  years  given  to  his  successor, 
cf.  under  Manasseh,  below. 

There  are  two  other  chronological  schemes,  however,  for  Heze- 
kiah's reign :  the  first  of  these  places  his  accession  in  727  or 
726  B.C.  This  is  based  on  the  synchronism  of  the  6th  year  of  his 
rule  with  the  capture  of  Samaria  in  722-721  b.c.  (2  Ki.  18 :  9  ff.). 
In  favor  of  this  view  is  the  total  number  of  years  assigned  to  the 
reigns  of  this  period  given  above,  viz.  139.  586  b.c.  +  139  = 
725  B.C.,  which  harmonizes  approximately  with  the  Bibhcal  syn- 
chronism. 

According  to  the  other  chronological  scheme  Hezekiah's  acces- 
sion =  715  B.C.  This  is  based  on  another  variant  Biblical  syn- 
chronism, viz.  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Assyria  in  701  b.c.  with 
the  14th  year  of  his  reign  (2  Ki.  18  :  13).  Those  holding  this  view 
consider  the  numerical  statement  of  this  verse  more  trustworthy 
than  that  in  vs.  10,  since  the  latter  harmonizes  with  the  synchronism 
for  the  Divided  Kingdom  stated  in  vs.  1,  and  these  synchronisms  are 
often  incorrect  (cf.  above  pp.  345  f.).  Further,  this  date  harmo- 
nizes, as  neither  of  the  others  (cf.  727  or  725  and  c.  719  b.c.)  do, 
with  the  king's  age  on  his  accession,  viz.  25  years  (2  Ki.  18 : 2), 


APPENDIX  C  351 

whose  father's  age  =  20  when  he  came  to  the  throne  (2  Ki.  16  :  2), 
c,  735  B.C.  Those  holding  the  theory  of  a  second  expedition  of 
Sennacherib  against  Hezekiah,  c.  691  B.C.,  find  in  this  another 
point  in  favor  of  the  date  715  b.c.    (See  p.  150,  iii.  e.) 

The  715  B.C.  date  is  favored  by  most  German  scholars  and  by  a 
number  of  English  and  American  authorities.  Those  adopting 
this  chronological  scheme,  usually  adjust  the  excess  of  Biblical 
computation  for  this  period  by  deducting  from  the  55  years  given 
to  Manasseh  (cf.  below  2nd). 

2nd.  The  reign  of  Manasseh.  The  years  assigned  by  the  com- 
piler of  Kings  to  Manasseh's  successors  to  the  end  of  the  Kingdom 
are  generally  taken  as  correct,  as  already  stated  above,  viz.  Amon 
2;  Josiah  31;  Jehoiakim  11;  Zedekiah  11  =  55  years.  Hence 
586  B.C.  +  55  =  641  b.c.  =  the  termination  of  Manasseh's 
reign  and  the  accession  of  Amon.  Taking  this  date  641  b.c.  it  is 
necessary  to  adjust  the  55  years  assigned  to  Manasseh's  rule  in 
almost  any  scheme  of  chronology  adopted  for  Hezekiah's  reign, 
especially  with  the  dates  of  accession  c.  719  or  715  b.c,  as  641  b.c. 
+  55  =  696  B.C. 

For  example,  719  b.c.  +  29  years  of  Hezekiah  (2  Ki.  18 :  2)  = 
c.  690  B.C.  690-641  b.c.  =  c.  49  years  for  Manasseh's  reign.  This 
is  the  scheme  adopted  in  this  volume. 

On  the  other  hand  715  b.c.  +  29  years  =  c.  686  b.c.  c.  686 
B.C.  —  641   B.C.  =  45  years  for  Manasseh's  reign. 

Scholars  vary  all  the  way  from  699  to  686  B.C.  as  the  date  of  the 
beginning  of  Manasseh's  reign  and  from  643  to  637  b.c.  for  its  end. 

The  incidental  items  of  chronology,  including  the  dating 
of  literary  productions,  between  937-586  b.c.  are  given  in  the 
introductory  sections  and  as  notes  in  the  outline  of  Biblical 
material  covering  this  period.     See  pp.  85-132 ;  133-169. 

Cf.  the  fact  noted  above,  that  in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel  the 
dates  which  are  given  in  the  different  sections  are  reckoned  from 
597  B.C.,  when  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  the  first  body  of  Hebrews 
was  carried  into  exile  (2  Ki.  24 : 8  ff.). 

C.  Exilic  and  post-exilic  periods,  586  ff.  B.C. 

The  chronology  of  Biblical  events  from  the  time  of  the 
Captivity,  586  b.c,  onward  is  reckoned  by  the  reigns  of  the 
different  monarchs  under  whom  the  Jews  lived  {e.g.  2  Ki. 
25 : 8 ;  Ezra  1:1;  Hag.  1:1;  Zech.  1:1,  etc.).  The  dates 
of  these  sovereigns  of  the  Babylonian,  Persian  and  Greek 
periods  are  determined  by  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  ''w^hich 
supplies  an  assured  framework  into  which  the  data  that  have 


352  APPENDIX  C 

been  preserved  can  be  fitted  without  trouble."  The  chrono- 
logical data,  however,  are  not  extensive,  and  there  is  some 
uncertainty  also  regarding  the  identification  of  the  particular 
king  mentioned,  in  some  instances ;  e.g.  the  Artaxerxes  of 
Ezra  7  fi.  (cf.  pp.  327  f.). 

For  the  adoption  of  the  Babylonian  year  in  this  period 
and  the  names  of  the  different  months,  cf.  p.  205. 

The  dates  for  these  years  of  Jewish  history,  so  far  as  given 
in  the  O.  T.  hterature  and  so  far  as  the  chronology  can  be 
determined  from  outside  records  {e.g.  Canon  of  Ptolemy), 
are  noted  in  the  introductory  sections  and  in  connection  with 
the  outhne  of  the  Biblical  material.^ 

1  Cf.  further  on  the  chronology  of  the  Old  Testament  HDB,  i.  397  flP. 
(Curtis,  E.  L.).  EBi,  i.  774  ff.  (Marti).  Ency.  Brit.  (11th  ed.),  iii. 
865  ff.  (Driver).  New  Schaff-Herzog,  xi.  442  ff.  (Kittel  and  Rogers). 
Jew.  Ency.  iv.  64  ff.  (Oppert  and  McCurdy).  Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  etc. 
318  ff.,  cf.  407  ff.  McCurdy,  HPM,  i.  409  ff.  (n.  6  to  §  216) ;  ii.  420  ff. 
(n.  6  to  §  638).  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophs.  Isr.^  145  ff.,  415  ff.  W.  J.  Beecher, 
Dated  Events  of  O.  Test.  Cf.  Toffteen,  Ancient  Chronology.  Toffteen, 
Historic  Exodus. 

For  the  period  of  the  Divided  Kingdom,  cf.  in  addition  Kittel,  Hist. 
Hebrs.  ii.  234  ff.     Skinner,  Ki.  38  ff.     Barnes,  Ki.  xxv  ff. 

Cf.  also  art.  "  Israel's  Conquest  of  Palestine  "  (Paton),  in  Journal  Bib. 
Lit.,  vol.  xxxii,  pp.  1-53. 


INDEX  A 

The  chronological  setting  of  the  Old  Testament  History  and  Literature,  as  indicated 
in  the  Biblical  Outline  of  the  different  periods. 


Genesis 

CHAP.  PAGE 

1-11 30, 1,  i. 

9;U}    263,iv.l. 

12-50 30-33,  II.  B. 

12:1-25:18 30  f.,  II.  A. 

17:  1-14 263,  iv.  1. 

25:  19-38:30 32,  II.  B. 

25:23  \  ^.         , 

27  :  27-29,  39  f.  / '  ^' 

39-50 32  f.,  II.  C. 

49:2-27 54,iv.6. 

49:2-27 83,  v.  a. 

Exodus 

1:1-12:36 33  f..  III.  A. 

12:1-13,  14-20 263.  iv.  1. 

12  :  37-18 :  27 34-36,  III.  B. 

12:43-50 263,  iv.  1. 

13:  If 263,  iv.  1. 

16:1-18 83,  V.  b. 

15:  1-18 197,  ii.  5.  d. 

15:  1-18 265,  iv.  6.  c. 

19-40 36-38,  III.  C.  i. 

20:2-17 36,  ii.  c. 

20:2-17 142,  n.i 

20:22-23:33 36,  ii.  6. 

20 :  22-23  :  33 64,  iv.  a. 

20:22-23:33 84,  v.  a- 

20 :  22-23  :  33 138,  n.i 

25:  1-31:  17 263,  iv.  1. 

34:  14,  17-26 36,  ii.  a. 

35-40 263,  iv.  1. 

Leviticus 

1-16 264,  iv.  1. 

8-9 36,  CA. 

10:1-7,  lfr-20 36,  CA. 

2a 


17-26 166,  ii.  j. 

17-26 193,  ii.  1. 

17-26 264,  iv.  1. 

24:  10-12 36,  C.  i. 

27 264,  iv.  1. 


Numbers 


1-2 

1:47-54  . 

3-4 

3-4 

6-6 

6:22-27.. 

7 

8:1-9:  14 

9 

10: 1-10. 
10: 11-14: 

15 

15:32-36... 
16:  1-18:7. 

18-19 

20-27 

21:14  6-15. 

14  6-16. 

17-18. . 

27  6-30. 

7-24 :  19 

1-11.  .  . 


46 


28-31 . . 
31-34.. 
35-36 . . 
36-36 . . 


..36,  C.i. 
.264,  iv.  1. 
..36,  C.  i. 
..264,  iv.  1. 
..264,  iv.  1. 
...36,  C.i. 
...36,  C.i. 
.  .  .264,  iv.  1. 
...36,  C.  i. 
...36,  C.i. 
...39,  Z).  i. 
.  .  .264,  iv.  1. 
.  .  .39,  D.  i. 
...39,  DA. 
...264,  iv.  1. 
..  .39,  D.  i. 
.  .  .39,  ii.  o. 
.Cf.  83,  V.  d. 
.39,  ii.  6. 
.  39,  ii.  c. 
.83,  V.  c. 
.264, iv.  1. 
.264,  iv.  1. 
.39,  Z).  i. 
.39,  D.  i. 
.264,  iv.  1. 


Deuteronomy 


1-4 39,  D.  i. 

1-4 193,  ii.  3.  c. 

6-11 156,  iv.  c. 

5-11 193,  n.» 

353 


(o). 


354 


INDEX  A 


CHAP. 

6-11... 
5 :  6-21 . 
6 :  6-21 . 
9 : 7-10 : 
11:5-7 
12-26 .  . 
12-26 .  . 

27 

27 


11 


28 

29-34 .  .  . 
29-34... 
32 :  1-43 
32 :  1-43 
33 


(b). 


PAGE 

Gf.  154,  ii.  b. 
. .  .36,  ii.  c. 
.  .  .142,  n.i 
...39,  D.  i. 
...39,  i).  i. 
..  .154,  ii.  b.  (b). 
.  .  .156,  iv.  c. 
.  .  .193,  3.  c.  (a). 
Cf.  39,  D.  i. 
..  .154,  ii.  b.  (b). 
.  .  .  156,  iv.  c. 
.  .  .193,  3.  c.  (a). 
Cf.  39,  D.  i. 
...193,  ii.  3.  b. 
..  .265,  iv.  6.  d. 
..  .141,  ii.  b. 


1-24 

10:  I2b-I3a. 
10 ;  12  6-13  a 


Joshua 

41,  IV.  i. 

41,  ii.  a. 

.  ..Cf.83,v.e. 


Judges 


1 
2 
2 
2 

5 

9:8-20 
17-21 . . 
17-21 . . 


1-2:5.. 
6-16:31 
6-16:31 
6-3:6. 


...41.IV.i. 
...50,  A.  i. 
Cf.  134,ii. 
..  .193,  ii.  3.  c.  (c). 
...  50,  ii.  a. 
..  .50,  ii.  6. 
..  .52,  B.  i. 
Cf.  134,  ii. 


Ruth 


1-4 52,  B.i. 

1-4 264,  iv.  2. 

1  Samuel 

1-7 53,  C.  i. 

1 Cf.l52,iv.e.  (d). 

2:  1-10 265,  iv.  6.  e. 

2:  11  £f Cf.  152,iv.e.  (d). 

3 Cf.  152,iv.e.  (d). 

8-31 74,  1.  i. 

8 Cf.  152.iv.e.  (d). 

9 :  1-10 :  16 Cf.  135,  ii.  a.  (a). 

10:  17  ff Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

ll:lff.  1 

13  [    Cf.  135,  u.a.  (a). 

14 :  1  ff . 

15 Cf.  152,iv.e.  (d). 

16:  14-23 Cf.  135,  ii.  o.  (&). 


CHAP.  PAGE 

17:  Iff Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

18:  1  ff Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

18:6ff Cf.  135,  ii.  a.  (6). 

19:  Iff Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

20:  Iff Cf.  135  f.,  iia.  (6). 

21:2ff Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

22 Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

23-24  (in  part) . . .  .Cf.  136,  ii.  a.  (6). 

25 Cf.  136,  ii.  a.  (b). 

26 Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 

27-31    (in  the  main) 

Cf.  136,  ii.  a.  (b). 


2  Samuel 


1 :  1  ff 

1 :  6-10,  13-16 

1 :  19-27 

1 :  19-27 

2-4 

3:33  f 

5-8 

9-20 .... 

9-20 

12: 1-4 

18 :  33 

21-24  

22  (=  Ps.  18) 
23: 1-7 

23  :  1-7 

23:  1-7 


.  .  .74,  1.  i. 
Cf.  152,  iv.  e.  (d). 
.  .  .74,  1.  ii. 
Cf.  83,  v.  e. 
...76,  2.  A.  i. 
...76,  2.  A.  ii. 
...76f.,  2.  B.  (a). 
..  .77  f.,  2.  B.  (6). 
..  .84,  v./. 
.  .  .78,  ii.  a. 
...78,  ii.  b. 
...79,  (c).i. 
...79,  ii.  b. 
.  .  .79,  ii.  a. 
.  .  .166,  ii.  m. 
.  .  .  197,  ii.  5.  e. 


1  Kings 

1-2.. Cf.  84,  v./. 

1:  1-2:  11 77  f.  (b).  i. 

2:  12-11:43 81,  3.  i. 

8:  12f 83,  V.  e. 

12:  1-15:8 133,  I.  i. 

15 :  9-24 135,  II.  i. 

15:25-31 133,  I.  i. 

15:32-16:28 135,  II.  i. 

16 :  29-22  :  53 137,  III.  i. 

17  ff 142,ii.e.  (6)-(c). 


2  Kings 

1-9 137,  III.  i. 

2ff 142,  ii.  e.  (6)-(c). 

9  :  1-14 :  20 139,  IV,  i. 

9-10 142,  ii.  e.  (c). 

13:  14-21 142,  ii.  e.  (&). 

14:21-15:7 141,  V.  i. 

15:5-26 143,  VI.  i. 

15:27-31 146,  VII.  i. 


INDEX  A 


355 


CHAP.  PAGE 

15:32-38 143,  VI.  i. 

16-17 146,  VII.  i. 

18:  1-8 148.  VIII.  i. 

18 :  9-12 146,  VII.  i. 

18 :  13-20 :  21 148,  VIII.  i. 

19:20-34 Cf.  151,  n.2 

21:  1-18 154,  IX.  i. 

21:  19-23  :30  a 155,  X.  i. 

23  :  30  6-24  :  7 160,  XI.  i. 

!24:8-25:21 164,  XII.  i. 

25 :  22-26 190,  I.  i. 

25:27-30 193,  II.  i. 

1  Chronicles 

1-9 303,  iii.  6. 

10 74,  1.  i. 

11:  1-9 7Q{.,  B.  (o). 

11:  10-47 79,  (c).  i. 

12:  1-22 74,  1.  i. 

12:23-40 76,  A.  i. 

13-18 77,  B.  (a).i. 

18:  15-17 77,  B.  (6).  i. 

19 77,  B.  (6).  i. 

20:  1-3 77,  B.  (b).  i. 

20:4-8 79,  B.  (c).  i. 

21:  1-22:  1 79,  (c).  i. 

22:2-19 77  f.,  (6).  i. 

23:  1-29:22 77  f.,  (b).  i. 

29:23-25 81,  3.  i. 

29:26-30 77  f.,  (6).  i. 

2  Chronicles 

1-9 81,  3.  i. 

10-13 133,  I.  i. 

14-16 135,  II.  i. 

14 :  1  a 133,  I.  i. 

17  :  1-22  :  9 137,  III.  i. 

17:1a 135,  II.  i. 

22  :  10-25 :  28 139,  IV.  i. 

26 141,  V.  i. 

27 143,  VI.  i. 

28 146,  VII.  i. 

29-32 148,  VIII.  i. 

33:  1-20 154,  IX.  i. 

33:21-35:27 155,  X.  i. 

36:  1-8 160,  XI.  i. 

36:9-21 164,  XII.  i. 

36:22f 252,  I.  i. 

Ezra 

1:1-4:5,  24 252,  I.  i. 

1:1^:5,  24 Cf.  328.  i.  o. 


CHAP.  PAOE 

4:6 255,  II.  i. 

4:7-23 257,  III.  i. 

4 :  7-23 Cf .  265,  iv.  8. 

4:7-23 Cf.  328,  i.  b. 

5:  1-6:22 252.  I.  i. 

5:  1-6:22 Cf.  265,  iv.  8. 

5 :  1-6 :  22 Cf .  328,  i.  a. 

7-10 257,  III.  i. 

7-10 Cf.  265,  iv.  7.  8. 

7-10 Cf.  329,  i.  d. 

Nehemiah 

1-13 260  f.,  IV.  i. 

1-13 Cf.  265,  iv.  9. 

1:  1-7:69 Cf.  328,  i.  b. 

7:70-8:  18 Cf .  329,  i.  d. 

9-10 Cf.  329,  i.  d. 

11:  1-13:3 Cf.  328,  i.  b. 

13:4-31 328,  i.  c. 

Esther 
1-10 318,  iii.  1. 

Job 

1^2 270,  ii.  3. 

1-42 Cf .  256,  ii.  2.  e. 

1-2  +  42:7-17.  .  .Cf.  166.  ii.  I. 
1-2  +  42  :  7-17 256,  ii.  2.  c. 


Psalms 

F8ALM  PAGE 

1-2 322,  iii.  4.  a. 

3-41  (=  Book  i) 264,  iv.  5. 

3-41  (  =  Book  i)  .     Cf .  322,  iii.  4.  b. 
42-83  (=  Books  ii-iii, 

in  part) 269,  ii.  2. 

42-83  (=  Books  ii-iii, 

in  part) Cf.  322,  iii.  4.  c. 

42-49  (Korahite) 269,  ii.  2.  b. 

42-49  (Korahite) .  .Cf.  322,  iii.  4.  c. 

46-48 151,  iv.  e.  (a). 

50  +  73-83  (Asaphic)   269,  ii.  2.  b. 
50  +  73-83    (Asaphic) 

Cf.  322,  iii.  4.  c. 

51-72  (Davidic) 269,  ii.  2.  a. 

51-72  (Davidic) . .  .Cf.  322,  iii.  4.  c. 

84-89 302,  iii.  3. 

84-89 Cf.  322,  iii.  4.  d. 

90-150  (=  Books  iv-v) 

322,  iii.  4.  e. 


356 


INDEX  A 


The  following  chronological  groupings 
of  psalms  given  in  the  book  may  also  be 
included  in  the  above  list, 

PAGE 

Davidic 79-81,  ii.  b ;  iii.  f. 

Davidic Cf.  71. 

Davidic Cf .  136,  ii.  6. 

Solomonic 81,  ii.  6. 

Early  monarchy 136,  ii.  b. 

Jehoshaphat's  reign .  .  .  138,  ii. 

Middle  monarchy 146  f.,  ii.  d. 

Hezekiah's  reign 151  f.,  iv.  e.  (a). 

Late  monarchy 166,  ii.  k. 

Exilic 193  f.,  ii.  d.  (a). 

Exilic 196f.,  ii.  5. 

Early  Persian  period  253,  ii.  3.  a-c. 
Middle  Persian  period  264  f .,  iv.  6.  b. 
Late  Persian  period   .  .  270,  ii.  4.  b.  /. 

Maccabean 318,  iii.  3. 

Maccabean Cf.  68,  233  f. 

Proverbs 

OHAP.  PAGE 

1-9     310,  iii.  9.  a. 

1-9 Cf.  270,  ii.  4.  c. 

10:  1-22:  16 81,  3.  ii.  o. 

10:  1-22:  16 157,  iv. /. 

10:  1-22:  16 310,  iii.  9.  b. 

22:  17-24:34 310,  iii.  9.  c. 

25-29 81,  3.  ii.  a. 

2&-29 152,  iv.  e.  (e). 

25-29 310,  iii.  9.  d. 

30-31 310  f.,  iii.  9.  e. 

ECCLESIASTES 

1-12 311,  iii.  10. 


Song  of  Solomon 

1-8 302,  iii.  4. 

1-8 Cf.  330f.,  i. 


Isaiah 

1   151,  iv.  c. 

2-6 144,  ii.  o. 

2:2-4 253,  ii.  3.  d.  (e). 

2:2-4 307,  iii.  7.  c. 

4:2-6 307,  iii.  7.  c. 

5:25-30 Cf.  146,  n.i 

7:1-9:7 146,  ii.  a. 

9:2-7 307,  iii.  7.  c. 

9 :  8-10 :  4 144,  ii.  o. 

9:8-10:4 Cf.  146,  n.i 


CHAP.  PAGE 

10:5-12:6 151,  iv.  c. 

11:  1-9 307,  iii.  7.  c. 

11:  10-12:6 306,  iii.  7.  c. 

13  :  1-14  :  23 195,  ii.  1.  b. 

13:  1-14:23 Cf.  306,  iii.  7.  c. 

14 :  24-27 151,  iv.  c. 

14 :  28-32 151,  iv.  b. 

15-16 151,  iv.  b. 

15:  1-16:  12 141,  ii.  a. 

17:  1-11 144,  ii.  a. 

17  :  12-14 151,  iv.  c. 

18 151,  iv.  c. 

19 151,  iv.  b. 

19:  1-15 253,  ii.  3.  d.  (6). 

19:  1-15 Cf.  306,  n.  3 

19:  16-25 302,  iii.  2.  a. 

19:  16-25 306,  iii.  7.  c. 

19:  16-25 322,  iii.  5.  b. 

20 151,  iv.  b. 

21:  1-10 195,  ii.  1.  a. 

21:1-10 Cf.  306,  iii.  7.  c. 

21:  11-17 151,  iv.  b. 

21:  11-17 Cf.307,iii.7.c. 

22:  1-14, 15-25 151,  iv.  c. 

23 146,  ii.  b. 

23 Cf.  306,  n.* 

23:  15-18 306,  iii.  7.  c. 

24-27 269,  ii.  1. 

24-27 Cf.  253,  ii.  3.  d.  (d). 

24-27 Cf.  306,  iii.  7.  c. 

24-27 Cf.  322,  iii.  5.  d. 

28-33 151,  iv.  c. 

28 :  1-6 146,  ii.  b. 

29:  16-24 306,  iii.  7.  c. 

30:  18-26  (27-33) 307,  iii.  7.  c. 

32-33 307,  iii.  7.  c 

34-35 264,  iv.  4. 

34-35 Cf.  196,  ii.  4.  c. 

34-35 Cf.  307,  iii.  7.  c. 

36-39 148,  i. 

37:21-35 151,  n.2 

40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

195  f.,  ii.  2. 
42  :  1^  (5-9)     1 

49  : 1-6  (7-13)      ....   194,  ii.  3.  d.  (b). 

50  : 4-9  (10  f.)       256,  ii.  2.  b. 

52  :  13-53  :  12    , 

56-66  (Trito-Isaiah) .  .259,  iv.  1. 

63  :  7-64 :  12 253,  ii.  3.  d.  (c). 

63  :  7-64 :  12 270,  ii.  4.  a. 


Jeremiah 

1-6 156,  iv.  b. 

3:  14  (16)-18 307,  iii.  7./. 


INDEX  A 


357 


CHAP.  PAGE 

7  :  1-9  :  26 160,  ii.  a. 

10:  1-16 196,  ii.  3. 

10:  1-16 Cf.307,  iii.7./. 

10 :  17-25 160,  ii.  o. 

11:  1-8 157,  iv.  d. 

11:^-12:6 160,  ii.  a. 

12:7-17 161,  ii.  c. 

13 164,  ii.  a. 

14-16 161,  ii.  c. 

17:  1-18 161,  ii.  c. 

17  :  19-27 157,  iv.  d. 

17:  19-27 265,  iv.  12. 

17:  1^27 Cf.307,  iii.7./. 

18-20 160,  ii.  a. 

19 :  3-9,  11  6-13  (?)       307,  iii.  7.  /. 

21 :  1-10 165,  ii.  g. 

21:  11-22:  19 160,  ii.  a. 

22  :  10-12,  13-19 160,  i. 

22  :  15  f 155,  i. 

22  :  20-30 164,  ii.  a. 

23-24 164,  ii.  c. 

25 160,  ii.  c. 

25 Cf.307,  iii.  7./. 

26 160,  ii.  a. 

26 Cf.  193,ii.3.a. 

27-29 164,  ii.  c. 

27-29 Cf.  193,  ii.  3.  a. 

29:  16-20 307,  iii.7./. 

30-33 165,  ii.  g. 

30-33 Cf.  308,  iii.  7./. 

34-44    (in    the    main) 

Cf .  193,  ii.  3.  o. 

34 165,  ii.  g. 

35 161,ii.c. 

36 160,  ii.  c. 

37:  1-38 :28  a 165,  ii.  g. 

38 :   28  h-Z^  :  7,8-9..  164,  i. 

39:  10-14 190,  i. 

39:  15-18 165,  ii.  g. 

40 :  1-43  :  7 190,  i. 

43:8-44:30 191,  ii.  2. 

45 160,  ii.  c. 

46-49 160,  ii.  c. 

46-49 Cf.  308,  iii.  7.  /. 

50 :  1-51 :  58 195,  ii.  1.  c. 

50 :  1-51 :  58 Cf.  308,  iii.  7.  /. 

51 :  59-64 164,  ii.  c. 

52  :  1-29 164,  i. 

52 :  28-30 190,  i. 

62 :  31-34 193,  i. 

Lamentations 

1-6 193,  ii.  2. 

1-6 Cf.  183.  n.i 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1-5 Cf.  270,  n.8 

3 270,  ii.  4.  h, 

3 322,  iii.  5.  o. 


EZEKIEL 


1-7  ...  . 

8-19... 
19:1-4, 


164 
165, 
160, 


u. 

i. 

19:5-9 164,  i. 

20-23 165,  ii. 

24 165,  ii. 

25-28 190,  ii. 

29  :  1-16 165,  ii. 

29:  17-21 191,  ii. 

30-31 165,  ii. 

32 190,  ii. 

33-39 191,  ii. 

40-48 191,  ii. 


ii.  d. 

e. 


/. 
h. 

I.  a. 
h. 
5. 
h. 

1.  a. 
1.  b. 


1-12 


Daniel 

318,  iii.  2. 


HOSEA 


1-3 142,  ii.  d. 

1:7;   1 :  10-2 :  1 ;  3:5 

Cf.  306,  n.2 

4-14 144,  ii.  6. 

4:  15,  etc Cf.  306,  n.^ 

14 306,  iii.  7.  b. 

Joel 

1-3 268,  ii.  1. 

1-3 Cf.  256,  ii.  2.  d. 


Amos 

1-9 141,  ii.  c. 

1:  11  f.;  2:4f.;  4  :  13  ; 

5:8f.,etc Cf.  306,  n.» 

9  :  8  6  (or  11)-15 196,  ii.  4.  b. 

9:8&  (or  11)-15 306,  iii.  7.  o. 

Obadiah 

Vss.  1-21 264,  iv.  3. 

Vss.  1-21 Cf.  259,  iv.  2.  b. 

Vss.  10-14 Cf.  191,  ii.  3. 


Jonah 

1-4 302  f.,  iii,  6. 

1-4 Cf.  265,  iv.  13. 


358 


INDEX  A 


MiCAH 
CHAP.  PAGE 

1 146,  ii.  c. 

2-3 150,  iv.  a. 

4-5 151,  iv.  d. 

4:1-3 253,  ii.  3.  d. 

4:1-3 307,  iii.  7.  c. 

4:4r-5:  15 307,  iii.  7.  d. 

6-7 154,  ii.  a. 

7:7-20 307,  iii.  7.  d. 


Nahum 

1-3 157,  iv.  e. 

1:2-2:2 308,  iii.  7.  a- 


Habakkuk 

1-3 160,  ii.  b. 

2:  12-14 308,  iii.  7.  h. 

3 270,  ii.  4.  ff. 

3 Cf.  308,  iii.  7. /i. 


Zephaniah 
chap.  page 

1-3 156,  iv.  a. 

2:8-11;  3:  9  f 307,  iii.  7.  e. 

3  :  14-20 196,  ii.  4.  a. 

3  :  14-20 253,  ii.  3.  d.  (a). 

3:14-20 307,  iii.  7.  e. 

Haggai 
1-2.  . 252,  ii.  1. 

Zechariah 

1:1-6 252,  ii.  1. 

1:7-8:23 252,  ii.  2. 

2:6-13 196,  ii.  4.  d. 

9-14 302,  iii.  1. 

9-14 Cf.  256,  ii.  2./. 

9-14 Cf.  322,  iii.  5.  c. 

Malachi 

1-4 255,  ii.  1. 

1-4 Cf.  259,  iv.  2.  a. 

1-4 Cf.  264,  iv.  6.  a. 


INDEX  B 


Biblical  books,  chapters,  passages  or  verses  discussed  in  the  Introductory  sections  or 
in  the  notes  on  Sources  and  Chronology  ( in  connection  with  the  outline  of  Biblical 
material). 


GENE3IS 
CHAP.  PAOE 

1-50.     See  Hexateuch  13  ff. 

1-50 30-33. 

1-11 8f. 

1-11 30,  ii. 

1-11 339  f. 

1 Cf.  284  f.,  (c). 

4:23f 30,  ii.  d. 

5 340,  a 

6:5-9:  17 30,  ii.  b.  c. 

9:25-27 30,  ii.  e. 

11:  lOff 340,  a. 

12:  10-20 32,  B.  i.  e. 

14 31,  i.  d. 

14 31,  ii. 

14 Cf .  338,  a. 

15;  13,  16 333,  (a). 

15;  13,  16 342. 

19:29 18,  n.3 

20 32,  B.  i.  e. 

26:6-22 32,  B.  i.  e. 

34 44,  iv. /. 

34 53,  iii.  c. 

37 32,  B.  i.  b.  c. 

49  :  2-27 Cf .  54,  iv.  b. 

49:2-27 72  f.,  C. 

Exodus 

1-40.     See  Hexateuch  13  ff. 

1^0 33-38. 

1-14 Cf.  340f.,5. 

3:1-6:1    1  j    , 

6:2-7:13}       66,  i.  j. 

6:6-8 194,  iii.  d. 

6:16-20 333,  n.i 

10:21-23,  27 34,  i.  g. 

12:  1-13:  16 34,  B.  i.  e. 

12  :  12  f 194,  iii.  d. 

12:40 333,  (a). 

12:40 342. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

15:  1-18 35f.,  ii.  6. 

16-18 36,  ii.  c. 

16:9  ff.,    13 35,  i. /. 

17:  16-7 35,  i.  a. 

19-34 36  f.,  iii.  e. 

20 38,  iv.  c. 

20 Cf.  142,  n.i 

20 186. 

20 20. 

20:22-23:33 37  f.,  iv.  b. 

20:22-23:33 41,  iv.  e. 

20:22-23:33 Cf.  54,  iv.  a. 

20 :  22-23  :  33 124,  c. 

20:22-23  :33 129. 

20 :  22-23  :  33 186. 

20  :  22-23  :  33 194,  iii.  e. 

20  :  22-23  :  33 244. 

20  :  24  ff 185. 

21:2-11 127. 

23  :  10  f 127. 

23:  14-16 242,  (d) 

23  :  20  ff 185. 

25:*  1-31:  18 Cf.  241  ff. 

30:  1-31:  11 266,  v.  a.  (d). 

30:  11-16 248,  (a). 

31:13,14  a 194,  iii.  d. 

34:  14,  17-26 37,  iv.  a. 

35-40 Cf.  241  ff. 

35-40 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

Leviticus 

1-27 Cf.  241  ff. 

1-3 266,  V.  a.  (b). 

2:4-16 266,  v.  a.  (d). 

4 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

5-7 266,  V.  a.  (6). 

8 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

9 266,  V.  b. 

10:9  a,  10  f 194,  iii.  d. 

11-15 266,  V.  a.  (6). 

11:2-23 158,  v.  i. 

359 


360 


INDEX  B 


OHAP.  PAGE 

11:1-23,41^7 194,  iii.  d. 

14:  8  6-53 266,  v.  a.  (d). 

17-26 184-189. 

17-26 194,  iii.  b. 

17-26 195,  iv.  o. 

17-26 243. 

17 185. 

19 186. 

23 194,  iii.  c. 

23 242,  (d). 

23 :  39-44 186. 

23:39-44 244,  (6). 

26 185. 

26 187  f. 

27 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

27:32  f 248,  (6). 

Numbers 

1-36.    See  Hexateuch  13  ff. 

1-36 Cf.  36-^1. 

1-36 Cf.  241£f. 

1-9 242  f. 

1-4 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

6-6 266,  V.  a.  (6). 

6:22-27 37,  iii./. 

8 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

10 :  9  f 194,  iii.  d. 

10:29-36 39,  iii./. 

10:35f 40,  iv.  a. 

11:  10  £f.,  31-35 40,  iii.  a. 

13-14 39,  iii.  e. 

13-14 40,  iii,  h. 

14:33f 342. 

15 266,  V.  a.  (6). 

15:37-41 194,  iii.  d. 

1&-17 39,  iii.  e. 

16-17 40,  iii.  i. 

19:  14-22 266,  v.  a.  (6). 

20:2-13 40,  iii.  j. 

21  (espec.  vss.  14  6-15, 

17  f.,  27^^30) 40  f.,  iv.  6. 

23-24 41,  iv.  c. 

2^3\~^^} 266,  V.  a.  (d). 

32:1-38 40,  iii.  k. 

32:  39-42 41,  iv.  d. 

32  :  39-42 43,  iv.  c. 

35-36 266,  v.o.  (d). 

Deuteronomy 
1-34.     See  Hexateuch  13  ff. 

1-34 41,  iv.  e. 

1-34 123-130. 

1-34 Cf.  194,  iU.  e. 


OHAP.  PAGE 

1-34 Cf.  208,  (d). 

1-34 Cf.242f. 

1-34 244  f. 

1-34 246  f. 

1:  1-4:40 40,  iii.  /. 

4:27-31 195,  iv.  d. 

5-11 123. 

5 :  6  ff .     See  Ex.  20 

6:4-9 285  f. 

9:7-10:111  _,    ...    ,  , 

11:5-7        J 39f.,m.d.J. 

12 185. 

14 :  3-21 158,  v.  i. 

14:22-28 248,  (6). 

15:1-11,  12-17 127. 

16:1-17 242,  (d). 

16:13,  15 244,  (6). 

21-25 129. 

21-25 158,  v.y. 

23:3 250. 

26:  12-15 248,  (6). 

27 158,  V.  k. 

28 185. 

29 :  28 195,  iv.  d. 

30 :  1-3 195,  iv.  d. 

32  :  1-43 183  f.,  J5. 

33 131  {.,B. 

33  :  2-5,  26-29 132. 

33  :  2-5,  26-29 141,  n.' 

Joshua 

1-24.    See  Hexateuch   13  ff. 

1-24 Cf.  268,  v.  Z. 

1-12 41  f.,  iii.  a. 

1-11.     Cf .  Judg.  1 . . . . 43  f .,  iv.  d. 
3:4a       ] 

5:4-7       f 267,  V.  fc. 

9  :  23,  27  J  Cf.  42,  iii.  d. 

10:12f 43,  iv.  6. 

13-24 42,  iii.  a. 

13  ff.     Cf.  Judg.  l,...43,iv.  c. 

17:  1  6-2,  5f 267,  v.  k. 

19  :  49  f.,  51 42,  iii./. 

20:4-6 267,  V.  A;. 

21:  11  6-13  a 267,  v.  k. 

21:43-45 42,  iii. /. 

22:7-8 267,  v.  k. 

22:9-34 42,  iii.  a- 

Judges 

1-21 4^-47. 

1-21 50-53. 

1 44,  iv.  e. 

1 Cf .  47. 

1 Cf.  267,  V.  A;. 


INDEX  B 


361 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1.     Cf.  Josh.  1-11 43f.,  iv.  d. 

1.     Cf.  Josh.  13  ff 43,  iv.  c. 

2:  16-5a,  13,  17 267,  v.  k. 

2:6-16:31 45  ff. 

2:6-3:6 50,  iii.  a.  (a) .  b. 

3:1-3,  11,  31 267,  V.  k. 

5 51,  iii.  c.  e. 

5:7 282. 

6-8 50,  iii.  a.  6. 

6:7-10 267,  v.  k. 

9 50,  iii.  a.  (c). 

9 51,  iii.  c. 

9:8-20 51,  iii.  f. 

11:  12-28 51,  iii.  d. 

11:29 267,  v.  k. 

13:4,  5  a,  etc 267,  v.  k. 

17-21 47. 

17-21 52,  ii.  a. 

17-21 52  f.,  iii.  a.  6. 

20-21 53,  iii.  6. 

20-21 - 267,  V.  k. 

Ruth 

1-4 53,  iii.  d. 

1-4 249-251. 

4:  1-12 249,  (6). 

4:  18-22 .250,  (h). 

1  Samuel 

1-31 47-49. 

1-7 49. 

1-7 53  f.,  ii.  a-d. 

1-3 Cf.  243. 

2:  1-10 54,  ii.  e. 

4:18 343,  d. 

6:15,  17,  18  a 267,  v.  k. 

8-31 74  f.,  iii. 

8-14 74  f.,  iii.  a-d. 

12 75,  iii.  d. 

13:  1 75f.,  iv.  c. 

15 4,6. 

16:  1-13 267,  v.  k. 

28  ff 76,  iv.  d. 

2  Samuel 

1-24 47-49. 

1-24 76,  iii.  a. 

1 74,  iii.  a. 

1:  19-27 75,  iii.  ^. 

2-4 76,  iii. 

3:33f 76,  iii.  d. 

5-8 77,  ii. 

6:llflf 5. 


CHAP. 

7... 


9-20... 
9-20 . . . 
9-20 . . . 
9-20 . .  . 

9 

15:7. . 

18 :  33 . 

21-24 . . 

21 

21: 

22. 

23 


1-14. . 

15-22 . 
Cf.  Ps 

1-7 ..  . 
23  :  8-39  .  . 
24 


18 


PAGE 

...77,  ii.  6. 
Cf.  4,  a. 

.  .8. 
.  .48. 
.  .78,  iii. 
.  .78,  iv.  a. 
.  .78,  iv.  d. 
.  .78,  iii.  d. 
.  .79,  iii. 
..79,  iv./. 
.  .77,  iii.  c. 


.79  f.,  iii.  e. 
.77,  iii.  c. 
.79,  iv./. 


1  Kings 


1-22 55-62. 

1-22 Cf.  81-83,  133  fif. 

1-2 59. 

1-2 Cf.  62. 

1-2 Cf .  4,  a. 

2:  12-46 82,  iii.  a. 

3-11 57. 

3-11 62. 

3-11 82,  iii. 

4 :  20-26 82,  iii.  d. 

4:29-34 116  f. 

6:1 83,  iv.  d. 

6:1 341  f.,  b. 

6:37f 83,  iv.  e. 

8:4&,  5 267,  v.  k. 

8:8,  etc 61. 

8:  12f 82,  iii.  g. 

8:65f 244,  (6). 

12 134,  iii.  c. 

12  :  21-24,  32  ff 267  f .,  v.  k. 

13 134,  iii.  d. 

14 134,  iii.  e. 

14:  19-16:34 136,  iii.  a. 

14 :  19-16 :  34 Cf.  134,  iii.  o. 

15 3. 

15 56. 

15:  1-8,  25-31 134,  iii.  e. 

15 :  9  ff 136,  iii.  a. 

16  :  29-34 138,  iii.  a. 

17  ff 3. 

17  ff 56. 

17  ff 57(.,(d).  (e). 

17  ff 59,  (6).  (c). 

17  ff 60,  (e). 

17  ff 138,  iii.  c.  d.  g. 

22:41-53 138,  iii.  e. 

22:41-53 Cf.  346. 


362 


INDEX  B 


CHAP.  PAGE 

2  Kings 

1-25 55-62. 

1-25 Cf.  138  ff. 

1-13.     See  1  Ki.  17  ff. 

1 138,  iii.  h. 

3 66. 

3:4f 345. 

6:24-7:20 140,  iv.  b. 

8 :  16-29 138,  iii.  /. 

10 :  28-12  :  21 140,  iii.  b. 

11:  1-12:  16 140,  iii.  b. 

ll:4ff 5. 

13  :  1-13,  22-25 140,  iii.  b. 

13:5 140  f.,  iv.  c. 

14  :  1-20 140,  iii.  b. 

14:  1-20 Cf.  346  f.,  (a). 

14  :  21-15 :  7 142,  iii.  a. 

14:23ff xi. 

15  :  8-38 144,  iii.  a. 

15:  19,  29 347,  (a).  1st. 

15:27-31 147,  iii.  a. 

16  :  1-20 147,  iii.  a. 

16:9 347,  (a).  2nd. 

17:  1-28 147,  iii.  b.  (a). 

17:  3  f 348,  n.2 

17:29-41 147,  iii.  b.  (6). 

18  :  1  ff 150,  iii.  b. 

18 :  1-8 149,  ii.  a. 

18:9-12 147,  iii.  b.  (a). 

18:9-12 Cf.  350  f. 

18:  9  f 344,  n.i 

18 :  13-16 149,  ii.  a. 

18:  17-19:37 149,  ii.  b. 

19  :  9  6-37 150,  iii.  e. 

19  :  37 150,  iii.  /. 

20 149,  ii.  c. 

20 150,  iii.  c. 

21:  1-18 154,  iii.  a. 

21:  19-26 155,  ii.  a. 

22:  1-23:27 155  f.,  ii.  b. 

22:8 128. 

23 Cf.  123. 

23  :  28-30  a 156,  ii.  c. 

23  :  30  6-24 :  7 161,  iii.  a. 

24:8-25:21 166,  iii.  a. 

24:8-25:21 Cf.  85,  1.  D. 

25:22-30 170,  1.  A. 

25:22-26 191,  iii.  a. 

25 :  27-30 194,  iii.  a. 

25:30 60. 

1  Chronicles 

1-29 63-68 ;  74ff. ;  134ff. 

1-29 244  f. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1-29 305,  V.  g. 

1-29 324  f.,  V.  i. 

1-29 Cf.  134,  iii.  6. 

1-9 65. 

1-9 304,  iv.  i. 

3  :  19-24 66  f. 

5:25f 305  f.,  v.  h. 

10-29 68. 

10:  13f .'..63;   75,  iii./. 

11:  10,  41  6,  47 79,  iii.  c. 

12:  1-22 75,  iii./. 

12:23-40 76,  iii.  c. 

13-17 77,  ii.  c. 

15 5. 

16:8-36 77,  ii.  d. 

16:8-36 233. 

21 79,  iii.  c. 

21:  1 238,  (6). 

22  ff 66. 

22  ff 78,  iii.  c. 

22  ff 82,  iii./. 

2  Chronicles 

1-36.     See  1  C.  1-29. 

1-9 68. 

1-9 82,  iii./. 

7:9 244,  n.i 

10:  1-11:4 134,  iii.  b. 

12:5-8,  etc 63. 

14:1-5 136,  iii.  6. 

15 :  16-19 136,  iii.  6. 

16:  12-14 136,  iii.  6. 

17  :  1-22 :  9 138,  iii.  6. 

20 66. 

22  :  10-25 :  28 140,  iii.  c. 

23 5. 

26 142,  iii.  6. 

27 144,  iii.  6. 

28 147,  iii.  c. 

29-31 150,  iii.  6. 

32  :  9-33 149,  ii.  d. 

33:21-25 156,  ii.  d. 

34  :  3-7 156,  iii.  a. 

34 :  8-33 156,  ii.  e. 

35 156,  ii. /. 

36:  1-8 161,  iii.  6. 

36 :  6  f 163,  iv.  c. 

36:  6  f 319,  v.  a. 

36  :  9-21 167,  iii.  6. 

36:22-23 200,  1.  A. 

Ezra 

1-10 201-204. 

1-10 253  ff. 


INDEX  B 


363 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1-10 327  ff. 

1 253,  iii.  b. 

1 255,  iv.  c. 

1:1-3 200,  1.  A. 

2 253  f.,  iii.  c. 

2 254,  iv.  6. 

2 269,  iii.  b. 

2 329,  ii.  e. 

2:70-4:3,  24  b 255,  iv.  d. 

3:  1-4:5,  24 253,  iii.  b. 

3:1 255,  iv.  d. 

3:  8ff 255,  iv.  c. 

4:6-23 203,  (/). 

4:6-23 257,  ii.  b, 

4:6-23 258  f.,  iii.  c. 

4:6-23 Cf.  328. 

4:6 257,  iv.  a. 

4:8-6:  18 201,  (6). 

4:8-6:  18 202,  (c). 

4:10 259,  iii.  d. 

5:  1-6:  18 254,  iii.  d. 

6:19-22 253,  iii.  b. 

7-10 257,  ii.  a. 

7-10 258,  iii.  a.  b. 

7:8 327  f. 

7:  12-26 201,  (6). 

7:  12-26 202,  (c). 

7:  12-26 257,  ii.  b. 

7:27-9:  15 258,  ii.  c. 

7:27-8:34 201,  (a). 

7:27-8:34 202,  (6). 

8-10 262,  iii.  d. 

8:36 329,  ii.  b. 

9 258,  iii.  a. 

9:1-15 201,  (a). 

9:  1-15 202,  (6). 

9:9 327,  n.i 

10 201,  (a). 

10 258,  iii.  a. 

Nehemiah 

1-13 201-204. 

1-13 261-263. 

1-13 327  ff. 

1:1-7:5 7  f. 

1:1-7:5 201,  (a). 

1:1-7:5 202,  (a). 

1:  1-7:5 261,  ii.  a. 

1:1-7:5 262,  iii.  6. 

1-2 259,  iii.  c. 

5:  14 263,  iii.  h. 

6:10-14 210,  (d). 

6:  15 262,  iii.  6. 

7:  1-5  a 329.  ii.  a. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

7:  6-73  a 201,  (a),  (c). 

7:  6-73  a 269,  iii.  b. 

7  :  6-73  a.     See  Ezra  2. 

7:73  6-10:39 261,  ii.  c. 

7  :  73  b-10 :  39 262,  iii.  c.  d. 

7:73  6-10:39 329,  ii.  c-f. 

8 329,  ii. /. 

8 244,  (6). 

8 245,  248. 

9:6-10:39 261,  ii.  c. 

10:32 248,  (a). 

10:35-39 248,  (6). 

11-13 202,  (a). 

11 261,  ii.  d. 

11:3-36 201,  (c). 

12:  1-26 261,  ii.  d. 

12:  1-26 262,  iii.  e. 

12:  10  f.,  22 203,  (6).  (c). 

12:26,  47 203,  (d). 

12:27-43 261,  ii.  d. 

12:27-43 262,  iii./. 

12:44-13:3 261,  ii.  d. 

12:44-13:3 262  f.,  iii.  g. 

13:  1-3 329,  ii.  d. 

13:4-31 261,  ii.  e. 

13:4-31 263,  iii.  h. 

13:  10-14 248,  (6). 

Esther 

1-10 291-293. 

1-10 Cf.  324f.,  v.  i. 

9:20-10:3 293. 

9:20-10:3 319,  iv.  o. 


Job 

1-42 235-241. 

1-2 271,  iii./. 

1-2 238,  (6). 

5:1 238. 

7:  17f 239,  (A). 

12:  13ff 235. 

27:7-23 271  f.,  iii.  g. 

28 239,  (0. 

28 241. 

28 272,  iii.  h. 

28 284  f.,  (c). 

28 313,  V.  p. 

32-37 241. 

32-37 273,  iii.  i. 

38:  1-42:6 273,  iii.  j. 

42:7-17 271,  iii./. 

42:  10  6,  12 239,  (m). 


364 


INDEX  B 


Psalms 

PSAIiM  PAQE 

1-150 224-234. 

1-150 Cf.  68-72. 

1-150 Cf.  130  f. 

1-150 184,  C. 

1-72 225. 

1-41 226  f. 

1-41 230  f. 

1-2 227. 

1-2 322,  iv.  e. 

8:4f 239,  (h). 

18 71. 

18 80,  iii./. 

42-72 226  f. 

42-49 227. 

42^9 231. 

51-72 227. 

51-72 231. 

72:20 225,  (6). 

73-83 226  f. 

73-83 231. 

84-89 226  f. 

84-89 232 ;  303,  iv.  d. 

84 303,  iv.  e. 

89:52 303,  iv. /. 

90-150 225  f. 

90-150 227  f.,  232  3. 

93,  95-100 228. 

93,  9&-100 323,  iv.  g. 

104-118 233,  n.2 

106 233. 

108 227,  (a). 

108 323,  iv.  h. 

111-118 228. 

111-118 230. 

111-118 233,  n.« 

113-118 323,  iv.j. 

120-134 228. 

120-134 323,  iv.  k. 

120-134 233,  n.2 

136 323,  iv.  L 

150 224. 


Proverbs 
chap.  page 

1-31 116-122. 

1-31 287. 

1-31 312,  V.  n. 

1-9 283-286,  o. 

1-9 287,  c. 

1-9 312  f.,  V.  o. 

1:  1-6,  7 116. 

1:1-6,  7 283  f.,  a. 

1:  1-6,  7 311,  iv.j. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1:1 117. 

1:1 283,  a. 

2 284,  (a). 

2:5-8 311,  iv.  k. 

3:27-35 311,  iv.  k. 

6:  1-19 311,  iv.  k. 

8 239,  (0. 

8 284  f.,  (b).  (c). 

8 313,  V.  p. 

9:7-12 311,  iv.  k. 

9:  18 285,  (d). 

10:  1-22:  16 118-120. 

10:  1-22:  16 313,  v.  q.  r.  8. 

10:1 117. 

10:  1 118  f.,  a. 

22  :  17-24  :  34 122,  c. 

22  :  17-24  :  34 311,  iv.  I.  m. 

22:  17-24:34 314,  v.  t 

24:23-34 314,  v.  u. 

25-29 120-122,  6. 

25-29 313  f.,  V.  q.v.  w. 

25-27 121,  n.i 

25:  1 117. 

25:  1 120. 

28:2f.,  etc 121. 

30-31 286  f.,  &.  c. 

30-31 314,  v.y. 

30 311,  iv.  n. 

30 :  5  f 286,  b. 

30:  5  f 311,  iv.  n. 

31:10-31 286,  (d). 

31:10-31 312,  iv.  o. 

31:10-31 314,  v.  x. 

ECCLESIASTES 

1-12 288-290. 

1-12 312,  iv.  p. 

1-12 324  f.,  V.  i. 

1:2-11 289. 

1:  12 290. 

2  :  24  f.,  etc 289. 

3  £f 312,  iv.  p.  q. 

3 289. 

4:  15ff 314,  V.  z. 

5:1-7:  14 312,  iv.  r. 

6:3 314,  V.  z. 

9:  14ff 314,  V.  z. 

9:  17-10:20 312,  iv.  p. 

10:  16 314,  V.  2. 

12:9-14 312,  iv.  s. 

Song  of  Solomon 

1-8 281-283. 

1-8 304,  iv.  g. 


INDEX  B 


365 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1-8 324  f.,  V.  i. 

1-8 331  f.,  ii.  a. 

1:1 281. 

2:8-17 332,  ii.  6. 

4:1-7 332,  ii.  c. 

4:8ff 332,  ii.  d. 

7:  1  flF 332,  ii.  e. 

7:7-8:4 332,  ii. /. 

8:5 332,  ix.  g. 

Isaiah 

1-66 308  f.,  V.  k. 

1-39 92-100. 

1-39 Cf.  174  ff. 

1-39 Cf .  220  f . 

1 99,  4.  i. 

1 Cf.  94,  2. 

1 Cf.  153,  V.  I. 

2-5 93,  1.  6. 

2:2-4 144,  iii.  d. 

2:  16 93,  1.6. 

2:20-22]  ^..    ... 

3:18-23} 144,  m.e. 

4:2-6 145,  iii.  /. 

6 87,  c. 

6 93,  1.  a. 

7:1-9:7 94,  2. 

7:1-9:7 147,  iii.  d. 

9:1-7 147,  iii.  d. 

9:1-7 148,  iv.  c. 

9:8-10:4 93,  I.e. 

9  :  8-10 :  4 144,  iii.  c. 

10:5-12:6 97,  4./. 

10:5ff 4,  6. 

10:33 299. 

11:  1-9 97,  4./. 

11:  10-16 97,  4./. 

11:10-16 152  f.,  v./. 

ll:llf 221,  (c). 

12 97,  4./. 

12 153,  V.  g. 

13:  1-14:23 87,  d. 

13:  1-14:23 178  f.,  6. 

13:1-14:23 Cf.  216,  (c). 

13  :  1 178,  6. 

14  :  1-4  a,  22  f 179,  b. 

14 :  1-4  a,  22  f 197,  iii.  a. 

14 :  4-21 198,  iii.  e. 

14:24-27 97  f.,  4.  ^. 

14:28-32 95,  4.  a. 

15-16 95f.,  4.  c. 

15-16 Cf.  152,  V.  c. 

15-16 Cf.  162,  n.i 

17:1-11 93f..  1.  d. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

17:12-14 98.  4.  h. 

18 98,  4.  i. 

19 96f.,  4.  (/. 

19:  16-25 152,  v.  d. 

19:  19 125,  h. 

20 95.  4.  h. 

21:  1-10 177  f.,  a. 

21:  11-17 97,  4.  e. 

21:  11-17 152,  V.  e. 

21:  11-17 Cf.  178.  a. 

21:  11-17 199.  iv.  6. 

22:  1-14 99  f..  4.  m. 

22:15-25 99,  4.  k. 

23 92. 

23 94  f.,  3.  6. 

23:15-18 147,  iii.  e. 

24-27 220-224. 

24 222  f. 

24:21f 222.  (c). 

25  :  1-5,  9-12 223  f. 

25:  1-5.  9-12 271.  iii.  a. 

25:  lOf 221,  (a). 

26:  1-19 271,  ui.  a. 

26:  1-19 223  f. 

26:  13-19 222. 

27:  1 221,  (a). 

27:2-6 223  f. 

27:2-6 271.  iii.  a. 

27:7-11 223  f. 

27:7-11 271,  iii.  a. 

27:13 221.  (a). 

28-33 98  f.,  4.;. 

28:  1-6 94,  3.  a. 

29:  16-24 153,  v.  t. 

30:  18-33 153,  v.  i. 

32 153.  V.;. 

33 98  f.,  4.;. 

33 153,  V.  k. 

34-35 215-217,  F. 

34-35 266,  v.  c. 

34:16 216. 

36-39 85,  1.  C. 

36-39 149,  ii.  e. 

38  :  9-20 149  f.,  ii.  /. 

40-66 209,  211  f. 

40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

87,  d. 
40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

172-177,  C. 
40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

197-199. 
40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

211,((7)-(A). 
40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

Cf.  237  f. 


366 


INDEX  B 


CHAP.  PAGE 

40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah) 

Cf.  239,  (k). 

40-48 198,  iii.  /. 

41 :  15  f 198,  iii.  d. 

42  :  1-4  (5-9) 198  f.,  iii.  k. 

42:24  6    1  .^o    ...     , 

44:9-20| 198,  m.  d. 

47 198,  iii.  e. 

48 :  1  &,  2,  3  b,  4,  etc.  . .  198,  iii.  d. 

48  :  16  6-19,  22 197  f.,  iii.  c. 

49-55 199,  iii.  l. 

49:1-6(7-13)}  gg  ,     ...    , 

50:4-9(10f.)   } 198f.,  in. /e. 

50 :  10  f 198,  iii.  h. 

51:  11,  15  f 198,  iii.  y. 

52  :  3-6 198,  iii.  i. 

52  :  13-53  :  12 198  f.,  iii.  k  ;  237 

53 240. 

54:  15]  ,^o    -    • 

55:7    J 198.111.;. 

56-66  (Trito-Isaiah)      87,  d. 
56-66  (Trito-Isaiah)  ..208-212. 

56:9-57:  11a 209. 

59:3-15 209. 

63:7-64:  12 212. 

63:7-64:  12 260,  v.  a. 

Jeremiah 

1-52 105-111;  157  ff. 

1-52 Cf.  86  f.,  a. 

1-52 Cf.  157,  V.  e. 

1-52 Cf.  237. 

1-52 Cf.  308,  n.i 

1 105,  1.  a. 

1 :  2  f 158,  V.  /. 

2-6 158,  V.  h. 

2:1-4:2 105,  1.  6. 

3:6-18 158,  v.  g. 

3:6-18 159,  v.  m. 

4:3-6:30 105  f.,  1.  c. 

7-10 107,  3.  6. 

7 163,  iv.  d. 

9:23-26 161,  iii.  d. 

9:23-26 Cf.  Ill,  8.  c. 

10:  1-16 180  f.,  d 

10:  11 199,  iii.  m. 

11:  1-8 106,  2.  a. 

11:  1-8 158  f.,  V.  Z. 

11:9-12:6 107,  3./. 

11:  18-12:6 158  i.,  v.  I. 

12 :  7-17 109,  4.  g. 

13 109,  5.  a. 

13 167.  iii.  e. 

14 :  1-17  :  18 109,  4.  /. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

17  :  19-27 106,  2.  6. 

17:  19-27 159,  v.  m. 

17:  19-27 Cf.  111.  8.  c. 

18-20 108,  3.  g. 

19:3-9,  116-13  1  ....161,  iii.  e. 
20:  14-18  J   Cf.  Ill,  8.  c. 

21:  1-10 110,  7.  a. 

21:  11-22:30 110,  5.  6. 

21:11-22:9 107.  3  c. 

22:  10-12 107.  3.  d. 

22  :  13-19 107,  3.  e. 

22  :  20-30 109,  5.  6. 

23 110,  6.  6. 

23:  1-8 110.  5.  6. 

24 110,  6.  a. 

25 108.  4.  a. 

25 111.  8.  c. 

25 162,  iii.  h. 

26 85,  1.  E. 

26 105. 

26 106  f..  3.  o. 

26 161,  iii.  c. 

26 163,  iv.  d. 

27-29 85,  1.  E. 

27-29 105. 

27-29 110,  6.  c. 

27-29 167,  iii.  /.  g. 

27-29 168,  iv.  c. 

27-29 Cf.  180,  c.  (a). 

27:  1 110.  6.  c. 

30-33 167  f.,  iii.  i. 

30-33 Cf.  111.  8.  c. 

30-31 Ill,  7./. 

30-31 169.  iv.  i. 

31:2-30 159.  v.  m. 

32-33 Ill,  7.  e. 

34-38 85. 1.  ^ ;  161,  iii.  c. 

34 110  f.,  7.  6. 

34 Cf.  167,  iii.  h. 

34 169,  iv.  h. 

35 109,  4.  h. 

35 162.  iii.  k. 

36-45  (in  the  main) ...  105 ;  161,  iii.  c. 

36 162,  iii.  k. 

36 :  1-8 108,  4.  c. 

36 :  2 163,  iii.  Z. 

36:4ff 86  f.,  a. 

36 :  9-32 109,  4.  e. 

37-38 167,  iii.  h. 

37:  1-38 :28  a Ill,  7.  c. 

38:28  6-39:9 85,  1.  D. 

38:28  6-39:9 Ill,  8.  a. 

39 167,  iii.  d. 

39 Cf.  Ill,  8.  c. 

39 :  10-43 :  7 191,  iii.  6. 


INDEX  B 


367 


CHAP.  PAGE 

39:  10-14 170,  i.  B.  a. 

39:  10-14 191,  iii.  c.  d. 

39:  15-18 Ill,  7.  d. 

39:  15-18 167,  iii.  h. 

40:  1-43:7 171,  1.  B.  b. 

40:  1^3:7 Cf.  191,  iii.  a.  d. 

42:7-22 191,  iii.  e. 

43:8-44:30 171,  2.  A. 

45 108,  4.  d. 

45 162,  iii.  k. 

46-49 108,  4.  h. 

46-49 162,  iii.  i. 

46-49 Cf.  HI,  8.  c. 

47  :  1 164,  iv.  /. 

48  :  5,  29-38 162,  n.i 

49  :  7-22 162,  iii.  ;. 

49:7-22 Cf.  213  f. 

49  :  34  ff 108,  4.  6. 

50:  1-51:58 179  f.,c. 

51 :  20-24 197,  iii.  6. 

51:59-64 110,  6.  d. 

51 :  59-64 167,  iii.  /. 

51:59-64 .  .168,  iv.  d. 

51:59-64 Cf.  Ill,  8.  c. 

52 167,  iii.  c. 

52:  1-27 85,  1.  D. 

52:  1-27 Ill,  8.  6. 

52:28-34 171,  1.  B.  c. 

52  :  28 168,  iv.  h. 

Lamentations 

1-5 181-183. 

1-5 195,  iv.  &. 

2 182. 

3 182. 

3 195,  iv.  c. 

3:6-9 Cf.  237,  (c). 

3:  14 182. 

4 182. 

5 182. 

EZEKIEL 

1-24,  29-31 114-116. 

1-24,  29-31 168  f. 

1-7 115,  a. 

1:1 115. 

8-11 115,  6. 

12-19 115,  c. 

12-19 168,  iv.  e. 

17 168,  iv.  /. 

17 Cf.  115,  c. 

20-23 115,  d. 


21:28-32 

169,  iv.  g. 

24 

115,  e. 

24 

169,  iv.  j. 

25-28 

171,  2.  B.  a 

26 :  1 

192,  iv.  d. 

27  :  9  ^25  a... 

191  f.,  iii./. 

29 :  1-16 

115,/. 

29:  1-16 

169.  iv.  j. 

29  :  17-21 

172,  2.  e. 

29  :  17-21 

192,  iv.  g. 

30:1-19 

115,  g. 

30 : 20-26 .... 

115,;?. 

30 :  20-26 .... 

169,  iv.  j. 

31 

115,  i. 

31 

169,  iv. /. 

32 

171,  2.  B.  b. 

32    .    .    . 

192,  iv.  e. 

33-39 

171  f.,  2.  c. 

33  :  21 

171,  2.  c. 

40-48 

172,  2.  d. 

40:1 

192,  iv.  /. 

44 :  6-16 

242  f. 

44:6-16 

246  f. 

44  :  9  fif 

.  .  .Cf.  186. 

Daniel 

1-12 293-299. 

1-12 319-321. 

1-6 297  f. ,6th. 

1-6 299. 

1-6 319,  iv.  b. 

1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 


If 297. 

If 319,  V.  a. 

4,  etc 296,  4th. 

5 294,  (d). 

4  6-7:28 294,  (6). 

4  6-7:28 319,  iv.  c. 

31  fif 319,  V.  b. 

2:44f 295  f.,  3rd. 

3:2,  5,  7,  15 294,  (d). 

4-5 298. 

5 296  f.,  4th. 

5:31-6:  1  ff 296  f.,  4th. 

6:8 319,  V.  b.  (d). 

7-12 298  f. 

7-12 319,  iv.  6. 

7 295  f.,  3rd. 

7 319  f.,  V.  c. 

7:  25  fif 297  f.,  299. 

8 320,  V.  d. 

8:3 319,  V.  b.  (d), 

8:9  S 295,3rd. 

8:  14 298. 

8:  14 320,  V.  e. 


368 


INDEX  B 


CHAP.  PAGE 

8:25f 299. 

9:2 297,  5th. 

9:2 309,  v.  I.  (e). 

9:4-19 319,  iv.  d. 

9:24-27 320,  v./. 

11 320  f.,  V.  g. 

11 Cf.  315ff.,  ii.  a. 

11:7-9 301,  ii.  h. 

11:21-45 295,  3rd. 

11 :  40  ff 321,  V.  g.  (o)-(6). 

ll:45ff 299. 

12:  1,  7,  11  f 295  f.,  3rd. 

12:1,7,  11  f 297  f.,  6th. 

12:  11  f 321,  V. /i. 

MiNOB  Prophets  309  f.,  v.  m. 

HOSEA 

1-14 90-92,  B. 

1-14 143-145. 

1-3 90  f. 

1:1 90. 

1:7,  11 143,  iii.  e. 

V^''] ^«-"/- 

3:5 143,  iii.  e. 

4-14 91  f. 

4  :  15,  etc 145,  iii.  g. 

5:  13 91. 

10:  14 91. 

ll:10f 145,  iii.  ff. 

14 92. 

14 145,  iii.  flf. 

Joel 

1-3 217-220,  G. 

1-3 268,  iii,  a. 

1-3 Cf.  280. 

2:32 215. 

2:32 220. 

3:1 219. 

Amos 

1-9 88-89,  A. 

1 89 

1:1 88  f. 

1:1 334,  n.2 

l:llf 142,  iii.  c.  (&). 

2:4f 142,  iii.  c.  (6). 

4:10 89. 

4:13 142,  iii.  c.  (a). 

5:8f 142,  iii.  c.  (o). 

6:13 89. 


CHAP. 

9. 
9 
9 
9 


5f 142,  iii.  c.  (a). 

8-15 89. 

8-15 142,  iii.  d. 

Obadiah 

Vss.  1-21 212-215,  E. 

1-14,  15  b 214  f.,  h. 

1-9 213  f.,  a. 

10-14 192,  iv.  c. 

10-14 213  f.,  a.  (a). 

10-14 215. 

10-14 216,  n.i 

15  a,  16-21 214  f.,  6. 


Jonah 

1-4 279-281,5. 

1:9 280. 

2 279,  (6). 

2 280,  (e). 

2 304,  iv.  h. 

3:3,  6 280,  (d). 

4:11 280,  (flf). 

MiCAH 

1-7 100-103,  D. 

1 101,  a. 

1 Cf.  152,  V.  a. 

l:6f 101,  a. 

1 :  9  ff 102,  a. 

2-3 101  f.,  a. 

2  :  12-13 152,  v.  a. 

4-5 102,  h. 

4-5 153  f.,  v.  m. 

4:1-3 144,  iii.  d. 

4:  10 154,  V.  m. 

6:1-7:6 102  f.,  c. 

6:7 102,  c. 

7 :  7-20 103,  c. 

7:7-20 154  f.,  iii.  6. 

Nahum 

1-3 112-113,  G. 

1:1-2:2 113. 

1:1-2:2 159,  v.  n. 

3:18f 112. 

Habakkuk 

1-3 113-114,  H. 

1-3 161  f. 


INDEX  B 


369 


CHAP.  PAGE 

1:2-4 113  f. 

1:  5-11 113  f. 

2:  12-14 114. 

2:  12-14 161,  iii. /. 

3 114. 

3 162,  iii.  g. 

Zephaniah 

1-3 103-104,  E. 

1 103  f. 

1 157,  V.  a. 

2-3 104. 

2:8-11 104. 

2:&-ll 157,  V.  6. 

3  :  8-10,  14-20 104. 

3:1-5 157,  V.  d. 

3  :  9  f 157,  V.  c. 

3:14-20 157,  v.  d. 

Haggai 

1-2 204-205,  A. 

2:  11-13 245,  (a). 

Zechariah 

1-8 206,  B. 

1-8 254-255. 

1-8 Cf.  275  ff.,  A. 

1:1-6 206,  a. 

1:7-6  :  15 206,  5. 

1:7-6  :  15 255,  iv.  g. 

2:6-13 254,  iii.  e. 

3:  1  ff 238,  (6). 

4:  6  6-10  o 254,  iii./. 

6:9-15 255,  iv.  h. 

7-8 206.  c. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

8 254,  iii.  g. 

8 255,  iv.  r. 

9-14 275-279,  A. 

9-14 303,  iv.  h. 

9-14 304,  V.  a. 

9-11  +  13:  7-9 276-278. 

9:  1  ff 277,  (e). 

9:  1  ff 301,  ii.  h. 

9:  Iff 304  f.,  V.  6. 

9:  llf 277,  (a). 

10:  1-2 303,  iv.  c. 

I0:3ff 305,  V.  c. 

10:6-9 277,  (a). 

10:  lOf 277,  (/). 

10:  lOf 301,  ii.  h. 

11:  1-3 305,  V.  d. 

ll:4ff 277;  305,  v.  d. 

12-14 276-278. 

12:  Iff 305,  v.e. 

13:7-9 303,  iv.  a. 

14 277,  (c). 

14 305,  v./. 

Malachi 

1-4 206-208,  C. 

1-4 Cf.  239,  0). 

1-4 245,  (6).  (c). 

1:1 206  f. 

1:1 309,  v.  m. 

1:2-5 207,  (d). 

1:  lOf.,  13 245,  (6). 

2:7 245,  (a). 

2:  10-16 207,  (d). 

2:  10-16 208,  (c). 

2:  11-13  a 256,  iii.  a. 

4:4,  5  f 256,  iii.  h. 


2b 


INDEX  C 

Names  and  Subjects^ 


Abijam  (Abijah),  133. 

Abraham,  date  of,  30  f.,  338-340. 

Adad-nirari  IV,  140  f . 

Agur,  310f. 

Ahab,  137,  139,  337,  345  f. 

Ahaz,  94,  146-148,  347,  348,  n.K 

literature  of,  144,  146. 
Ahaziah,  of  Israel,  137,  345. 

of  Judah,  137. 
Alexander  the  Great,   223,   254,   300  f., 

304  f.,  320. 
Alexander's  generals,  conflicts  between, 

301,  304  f.,  319  f. 
Alphabetical  (acrostic)  poems,  159, 181  f., 

267,  286,  312,  323. 
Altar,  building  of,  255,  262,  317. 
Amaziah,  139,  141,  346  f. 
Amenophis  IV,  33,  339,  342. 
Amestris,  291  f. 
Amon,  155. 

Amos,  Book  of;   date  and  divisions  of, 
88  f.,  141  f. 
later  additions  to,  89,  142,  196,  306. 
its  relation  to  JE,  21  f. 
attitude  to  high  places  in,  22. 
Angelology,  15,  222,  238,  295. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  conflict  with  the 
Jews,  295  f.,  315  £f.,  319-321,  323. 
invasions  of  Egypt,  316,  321. 
Antiochus  the  Great,  314  f.,  320  f. 
Apepa  II,  32  f.,  339,  342. 
Aphek,  battle  of,  138  f. 
Apocalyptical  writings,  98  f.,  219,  221  f., 

277  f.,  298  f.,  303,  305. 
Aramaic,  dialect  of,  in  Dan.,  294. 

parts  of  O.  T.  written  in,  199,  201  f., 
254,  257,  265,  294,  319. 
Aramaisms,  69,  232,  240,  249,  273,  281  f., 
286,  288,  291. 


Ark,  38,  125,  243. 

prayers  to  (Num.  10:  35  f.),  40. 
Amon,  Song  of  (Num.  21 :  146-15),  39-41. 
Artaxerxes  I,  207,  258,  262  f.,  327  f. 
Artaxerxes  II,  269,  314,  328. 
Artaxerxes  III   (Ochus),  experiences   of 
Jews  under,   219  f.,   223,   239,   260, 
273  f.,  cf.  215. 
Asa,  135. 

literature  of,  135  f. 
Asaphic  Psalms,  227,  231,  237,  269,  322. 
Ascents,  Psalms  of.     See  Degrees. 
Asshurbanipal,  94,  259,  349,  n.^,  cf.  112. 
Assyrians,  94  ff.,  101  f.,  112-114,  221,  n.K 

related  to  Israel's  fortunes,  75,  140  f. 

chronological  value  of  records  of,  62, 
75,  140  f.,  335  ff.,  344-351. 
Assjo-ia,   post-exilic  usage  of,   221,   277, 

301,  305. 
Assyrian  kings,  ofl&cial  titles  of,  280. 
Astyages,  179. 
Athaliah,  139. 
Atonement,  day  of,  244. 
Authenticity,  88. 

Authors,  how  distinguished,  14,  n.^  174. 
Azariah.     See  Uzziah. 

Baasha,  135. 

literature  of,  135  f. 
Babylon,  captures  of,  173,  177  ff.,   199, 

254,  296. 
Babylonians.     See  Chaldeans. 

mythology  of,  8  f . 

religious  cult  of,  128,  187  f.,  236. 
Babylonian  year.     See  Months. 
Bagoses,  274. 
Balaam,  poems  of    (in  Num.  23  f.),  41, 

73   83 
Baruch,  writings  of,  105,  161  f.,  167,  193. 


^  Of  the  names  and  subjects  of  this  volume  only  those  considered  the  most 
important  are  included  in  this  Index.  The  page  references  as  a  rule  do  not  repre- 
sent an  exhaustive  list  of  their  occurrence,  as  minor  allusions  have  been  frequently 
omitted. 

370 


INDEX  C 


371 


Belshazzar,  296. 

Ben-hadad,  140. 

Berosus,  163,  349. 

Beyond  the  River,  usage  of,  82. 

Biblical  Criticism,  character  of,  vii. 

Book  of  Acts  of  Solomon,  57  f.,  59,  82, 

140. 
Book  of  the  Chronicles  (in  Neh.),  261. 
Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 

Israel,  2,  57  f.,  59  f.,  65,  136,  152. 
Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 

Judah,  2,  57  f.,  60,  65,  136,  149,  152, 

164. 
Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah, 

64-66,  270. 
Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah,  40  f.,  43, 

83,  cf.  51. 
Booths,  Feast  of,  in  H,  186. 
in  D  and  P,  244. 

Cambyses,  335. 
Canon  of  the  Law,  265. 

of  the  Prophets,  308  f.,  cf.  297. 
of  the   Writings   (Hagiographa) ,  297, 
322-325. 
Capti\4ty    of   597   B.C.,    114,    163,    171, 
349  ff. 
of  588  B.C.,  168. 

of  586  B.C.,  168,  192,  cf.  114,  350  f. 
of  581  B.C.,  192. 
Captivity,  bring  back,  219. 
Carchemish,  battle  of,  113,  163,  349,    cf. 

108. 
Central  Sanctuary  in  Deut.,  6,  125  f. 
in  Kings,  6,  56. 
in  P,  241  f. 
Chaldeans,  94,  108  f.,  110-114, 163, 168  f. 
Chaldeans,  usage  of,  in  Dan.,  296. 
Child  sacrifice,  102. 

Chronicles,  Books  of,  2,  5, 63-68, 85, 303  f . 
sources  of,  64  ff. 
priestly  interest  and  representation  of, 

5,  63  f.,  244  f. 
literary  style  and  date  of  compilation 

of,  65-67. 
idealization  of,  10,  52,  etc. 
genealogies  of,  65-67,  303  f.,  cf.  250. 
relation  to  Sam.  and  Ki.,  64,  67  f., 

cf.  305. 
relation  to  Ezra-Neh.,  63,  201. 
relation  to  Maccabean  conflict,  67. 
canonical  recognition,  time  of,  324  f . 
Chronicler,    characteristics   of   and   ma- 
terial peculiar  to,  10,  52,  65  f .,  75-82, 
134-169,  201-204,  231  f.,  245,  253- 
263,  305  f. 


Chronicler  —  Continued 

representation  of  pre-exilic  history  by, 

10,  67  f.,  70,  244,  305. 
relation  to  post-exilic  history,  305. 
Chronology,  333-352. 

character  of  Biblical   data,  333  f.,  cf. 

134  f. 
Egyptian  records,  334  f.,  336  f. 
Assyrian  records,  75,  335-337. 
adjustment  of  Biblical  data  to  these 

sources,  337  ff. 
Primitive  times,  339  f. 
Patriarchal  period,  31-33,  338  f. 
Exodus  and  Desert  wanderings,  33-41, 

340-342. 
Period  of  Conquest,  41-44,  342. 
Period  of  Judges,  51-54,  343. 
Period  of  United  Kingdom,  75-83, 343  f . 
937-842  B.C.,  134-139,  344-346. 
842-722  B.C.,  140-148,  346-349. 
722-586  B.C.,  149-169,  349-351. 
Period  of  Exile,  192-199,  cf.  351  f. 
Persian  period,  254-274,  cf.  351  f. 
Grecian  period,  300-325,  cf.  351  f. 
Chronological      arrangement      of      O.T. 
writings,  need  and  value  of,  vii-xv. 
explanation  of  present  order,  x. 
relation  to  sources,  26-29. 
Commands.     See  Book  of  Covenant. 
Compilers.     See  Priestly  and  Prophetic 

narratives,  cf.  also  pp.  226  fif. 
Conquest   of   Palestine,    time   occupied, 

42  f.,  342. 
Covenant,  Book  of,  36-38,  54,  84,  124  f., 
127,  185,  244. 
sections  of  and  names,  38. 
original  position  of,  41,  194. 
cf.  Deut.,  124,  127  f.,  129,  168. 
cf.  H,  185  f. 
cf.  P,  242,  246. 
Covenant,  Little  Book  of,  36  f. 
Creation,  8,  339  f. 

Cyrus,  conquests  of,  173,  179,  199,  254, 
258,  296. 

D,  meaning  of  symbol,  19. 

D'   (RD),  meaning    of    symbol,   19,   26, 

cf.  45  ff.,  55,  etc. 
Damascus,  93  f.,  138-141,  147,  347. 
Daniel,  Book  of,  293-299,  318-321. 
language   and   literary   characteristics 

of,  293  ff.,  298  f. 
religious  conceptions  of,  295. 
historical  inaccuracies  in,  296  f. 
aim  and  religious  value  of,  295,  297- 
299. 


372 


INDEX  C 


Daniel,  Book  of  —  Continued 
date  of,  298,  320. 

predictive  element  in,  299,  321,  cf.  296. 
interpretations  of  kingdoms  in,  319- 

320. 
historical   references   in,   320-321,    cf. 

316  ff. 
theory  of  composite  character  of,  299, 

319. 
influence  on  other  literature,  297. 
Darius  I,  Hystaspis,  254,  258,  296. 
Darius  III,  Codomannus,  203,  231,  262, 

300. 
Darius  the  Mede,  296  f. 
David,  reign  of,  76-81. 

lament  for  Abner  (2  Sam.  3  :  33  f.),  76. 
lament  for  Absalom  (2  Sam.  18 :  33) ,  78. 
lament  for  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  Sam. 

1:  19-27),  2,  9,  n.^,  68,  74  f. 
last  words  of  (2  Sam.  23:  1-7),  79  f., 

166,  197. 
narratives  of,  48  f.,  74-79,  135  f. 
psalms  of,  69-72,  79-81. 
as  musician  and  poet,  70  f . 
the  Chronicler's  conception  of,  70. 
Deborah,  Song  of  (Judg.  5),  9,  n.s,  11, 

50  f.,  282. 
Decalogue,  36-38. 
original  form  of,  38. 
date  of,  38,  142,  n.K 
relation  to  Books  of  Covenant,  37. 
relation  to  Lev.  19,  186. 
Degrees  (or  Ascents),  Psalms  of,  228,  233, 

303,  323. 
Deuteronomy,    Book   of,    123-130,    154, 
156,  158. 
discovery  of,  23,  123. 
names  and  divisions  of,  123  f.,  cf.  39  f. 
evidence  for  date  of,  124  ff.,  127,  244  f. 
style  and  influence  on  other  writings, 

127,  cf.  19. 
later  additions  to,  158,  u.\  193, 195, 39  f . 
cf.  JE  narrative,  40. 
cf.  Book  of  Covenant,  124  f.,  127-129, 

158,  242,  246  f. 
cf.  H.  185  f. 
cf.  P,  124,  241  f.,  246  f. 
cf.  8th  century  prophets,  126  f. 
cf.  Prov.,  122,  285  f. 
cf.  Jer.,  106,  127. 
cf.  Hag.,  245. 
cf.  Mai.  208,  245. 
Deuteronomic    writings    and    editings, 
4-6,  10,  cf.  45  f.,  48,  309. 
in  Hex.,  19  f.,  23  ff.,  39-44,  123,  193. 
in  Judg.,  10  f.,  23,  45  f.,  50  f.,  161, 193. 


Deuteronomic  writings  —  Continued 
cf.  Ruth,  250. 

in  Sam.,  23,  48  f.,  54,  75-82,  193. 
in  Ki.,  5  f.,  23,  55  f.,  60-62,  82,  134- 
166,  191-194. 
Deutero-Isaiah.     See  Isaiah. 
Dispersion,  The,  Jews  in,  210  f .,  216,  254. 
Divine  names,  in  Hex.  13  ff. 
in  LXX  of  Gen.,  26,  n.2. 
in  Psal.,  225  ff.,  267,  271,  303,  323. 
Doxologies  in  Psal.,  224  f.,  227  f.,'  233, 

303. 
Duplicate  narratives  and  literary  paral- 
lels, 3,  5,  24,  30,  32-35,  39  f.,  43  f., 
46  f.,  50,  52,  74  f.,  80,  119,  144,  162, 
213,  225  ff.,  233,  253,  271. 

E,  meaning  of  symbol,  14  f.,  20  f.,  47. 
W  (Es),  meaning  of  symbol,  20  f. 
Earthquakes,  88  f.,  334,  n.2. 
Ecclesiastes,  Book  of,  288-290,  311-314. 

impersonation  of  Solomon  in,  and  ex- 
planations, 288,  289  f. 

evidence  for  date  of,  288  ff. 

religious  tone  of,  288  f. 

theories  of  composition  and  additions 
to,  312. 

supposed  historical  allusions  in,  314. 

canonicity  of,  324. 
Ecclesiasticus,  Book  of,  relation  to  Chr., 
67. 

to  Esth.,  292. 

to  Prov.  1-9,  285. 

to  Psal.,  234. 

to  Eccles.,  289. 

to  Prophetic  Canon,  309. 

to  Minor  Prophets,  309. 

to  Dan.,  297. 

to  the  Hagiographa,  323. 
Eclipses,  89,  335-337. 
Edom,  207,  212-216,  218. 
Egypt,  32-35,  98,  107,  114,  150,  156,  159, 
163,  273  f.,  301,  315  f.,  320  f. 

chronology  of  its  records,  32  f . ,  334-337. 

Jews  in,  277,  n.i,  301,  305. 

post-exilic  usage  of,  277,  cf.  218. 
Elah,  135. 
Elath,  loss  of,  93. 
Elam,  177  f. 
Elders,  218,  221. 
Elegy   Hebrew,   characteristics  of,    181, 

cf.  102  f.,  149,  167,  198. 
Elihu-speeches  (Job  32-37),  authenticity 

of,  241,  273. 
Elijah  and  Elisha  narratives,  3,  56-60, 
138, 142. 


INDEX  C 


373 


Elohim  (=  God),  in  Hex.,  14  f.,  17  f. 

in  Psal.,  225  8.,  267,  271,  303,  323. 
Elohistic  source  (E)  in  Hex.,  14  ff.,  20  f., 
31-42. 

place  of  origin,  16. 

date  of,  20  ff. 

combination  with  J,  23  f.,  154. 
Ephraim,  post-exilic  usage  of,  278. 
Esarhaddon,  259,  349,  n.2. 
Esau  poems.     See  Jacob  and  Esau,  etc. 
Eschatological  descriptions,  221  f.,  277  f. 
Esther,  Book  of,  291-293,  318  f. 

evidence  for  date  of,  291  ff. 

views  of  historicity  of,  291  ff. 

insertions  in,  293,  319. 

canonicity  of,  324. 
Ethan,  231  f. 

Evenings-mornings,  meaning  of,  320. 
Exile,    114,    168,    170  ff.,   190-199,  230, 
236  f. 

literary  activity  of,  23,  25,  170  ff.,  247  f. 
Exodus,  date  of,  35,  340  f. 
Exodus,  Book  of.     See  Hexateuch. 

narrative  element  of,  33-37. 

legal  element  in  (JE),  34,  36  ff. 

legal  element  in  (P),  263,  266. 
Ezekiel,  Book  of,  114-116,  171-172. 

divisions  and  dates  of,   115,   164-169, 
171  f.,  190-192,  351. 

chronological  order  of,  115,  204  f. 

Gray's  view  of  composition  of,  168,  n.^. 

authenticity  of,  115,  191  f. 

relation  to  H,  187  f. 

relation  to  P,  242  f. 
Ezra,  date  and  reforms  of,  254,  258  f., 
cf.  244,  250,  305,  327-329. 

Memoirs  of,  201  ff.,  258,  265. 
Ezra-Nehemiah,     Books     of,     200-204, 
253-255,  257  f.,  260  ff.,  327-329. 

sources  of,  201  ff.,  253  ff. 

relation  to  Chr.,  63,  201,  203  f. 

standpoint    and  date    of    compilation, 
201  ff.,  303. 

misplaced  sections  in,  258  f.,  327-329. 

Fables,  9,  50  f. 

Feasts  in  the  different  Codes,  186,  194, 

242. 
First  born,  law  of,  34,  263. 
Flood,  The,  8,  30,  339  f. 

Galilee,  capture  of,  91,  148,  155. 
Gaza,  capture  of,  164. 
Gedaliah,  190-192. 
Genesis,  Book  of.     See  Hexateuch. 
narrative  element  in,  30-33. 


Genesis  —  Continued 

legal  element  in  (P),  263. 

ten-fold  division  of,  25. 

chronology  of,  its  value,  340. 
Greeks,  218,  277,  304  f. 
Greek  influence  in  Palestine,  301,  316. 
Greek  influence  in  O.  T.  writings,  284, 

289,  301,  cf.  304  f. 
Greek  words  in  O.  T.,  282,  294  f. 
Guest  Psalms,  267. 

H,  meaning  of  symbol,  184  f.,  241. 
Habakkuk,  Book  of,  113  f.,  160-162. 

divisions  and  date  of,  113  f. 

later  additions  to,  114,  161  f.,  270,  308. 
Habiri,  35. 

Haggada,  meaning  of,  292. 
Haggai,  Book  of,  204  f.,  252. 

divisions  and  date  of,  204  f.,  252. 

relation  to  Deut.,  245. 
Hagiographa  =  Writings.     See  Canon, 
Hallel  Psalms,  228,  230,  233,  n.«,  323. 
Hammurabi,  31,  338  f. 
Hannah,  Song  of  (1  Sam.  2 : 1-10),  54, 265. 
Hasideans,  317. 
Hazael,  140. 

Hazrak,  kingdom  of,  141,  n.^ 
Hebrew,  late,  characteristics  of,  279,  288, 

291,  293  f.,  cf.  51. 
Heliodoms,  315,  321. 
Heman,  231  f. 
Herodotus,  156,  291  f.,  335. 
Hexateuch,  meaning  of  term,  13. 

sources,  dates  of,  etc.,  13-29. 

cf.    123-130   (D),    184-189   (H),   241- 
248  (P). 
Hezekiah,  95-102,  148-150. 

chronology  of  his  reign,  150,  350  f. 

his  reforms,  150. 

Hterature  of,  150-154. 

psalm  of  (Isa.  38 :  9-20),  149  f. 
High  places.     See  Sanctuaries. 
High  Priest,  186  f.,  218. 
Hilkiah,  129. 
Hiram,  77,  83. 
History,  definitions  of,  7  f. 
History  of  Jews,  516-458  B.C.,  256  f. 

c.  430-350  B.C.,  268  f. 

350-332  B.C.,  273  f. 

332-c.  250  B.C.,  300  f. 

c.  250-165  B.C.,  315-317,  cf.  320  f. 
Historical    writings,     classifications    of, 
1-12. 

composite  character  of,  ix,  2  f.,  25,  n.*. 

moral  and  religious  significance  of,  3-7. 

historical  value  of,  7-12. 


374 


INDEX  C 


Historical  writings  —  Continued 

idealization  in,  10,  cf.  52,  59,  249  f. 

other    literature    incorporated    in,    9, 
cf.  29. 

transmission  of  early  narratives,  27  f. 
Holiness,  Law  of  (Lev.  17-26),  166,  184- 
189,  193-195. 

evidence  that  it  is  a  separate    Code, 
184  f. 

date  of  compilation,  186-189,  193-195. 

pre-exilic  elements  in,  188,  195. 

ethical  character  of,  185  f. 

sections  of  H  in  other  books,  194. 

relation  to  JE  and  D,  185  f. 

relation  to  Ezek.,  187. 

relation  to  P,  186  f.,  194,  243. 
Hosea,  Book  of,  90-92,  142  f.,  144  f. 

divisions  and  dates  of,  90  ff.,  142  f., 
144  f. 

later  additions  to,  92,  143,  145,  306. 

relation  to  JE,  21  f. 

attitude  to  high  places,  22. 

bearing  on  pre-exilic  law,  28  f. 
Hoshea,  146,  148,  348  f. 
Hyksos,  32  f.,  339. 

Ipsus,  battle  of,  301. 
Isaac,  339. 
Isaiah,  Book  of :  — 
compilation  of,  308  f. 
1-39  (in  the  main),  92-100,  141-153. 
1-39,   divisions  and  dates  of,    92  ff., 

144  ff. 
1-39,    language,    style    and    religious 

ideas  of,  174-177. 
1-39,  historical  sections  in,  85,  149. 
1-39,  later  additions  to,   100,   144  f., 

147,   152  f.,   177  f.,   195,   199,  253, 

306  f.,  322. 
13:  1-14:  23,    evidence   for   date   of, 

178  f.,  195,  197,  306. 
24^27,  evidence  for  date  of,  220-224, 

253,  269-271,  306,  322. 
24-27,  later  additions  to,  224,  271. 
34-35,  evidence  for  date  of,  196,  215- 

217,  264,  266,  307. 
34-35,  relation  to  other  O.  T.  litera- 
ture, 216. 
40-55  (Deutero-Isaiah),  172-177,  195- 

199,  cf.  194. 
40-55,    theory   of   unity   with   56-66, 

177,  209,  211  f. 
40-55,  evidence  for  date  of,   172  ff., 

195  ff. 
40-55,   language,   style   and   religious 

ideas  of,  174-177,  cf.  211. 


Isaiah,  Book  of  —  Continued 

40-55,  predictive  element  in,  174. 

40-55,  editorial  additions  to,  197  f. 

40-55,  cf.  Job,  237,  240. 

56-66  (Trito-Isaiah),  208-212,  259  f. 

56-66,  evidence  for  date  of,  208  ff.,  253, 
260,  270. 

56-66,  style  of,  211. 
Israel,  in  Egyptian  inscriptions,  35. 

post-exilic  usage  of,  218,  278. 
Issus,  battle  of,  300,  303. 

J,  meaning  of  symbol,  13,  20  f.,  47. 

J2  (J3),  meaning  of  symbol,  20  f.,  24  n.i. 

sections  in  Gen.,  30,  32. 
Jacob,  339,  cf.  16. 
Jacob,  Blessing  of  (Gen.  49:2-27),  54, 

72  f.,  83. 
Jacob   and   Esau  poems   (Gen.   25 :  23 ; 

27:27-29,  39  f.),  84. 
Jaddua,  203,  262. 
Jamnia,  councils  of,  324. 
Jashar,  Book  of,  2,  40,  43,  51,  75,  82  f. 
Jason,  316. 
Jeduthun,  231. 
JE,  meaning  of  symbol,  15. 

date  and  method  of  combination,  23  f., 
154,  cf.  33. 
Jehoahaz,  of  Israel,  139  f. 

of  Judah,  160. 
Jehoash  (Joash),  of  Israel,  139-141. 

of  Judah,  139. 
Jehoiachin,  109  f.,  115,  164,  167,  193. 

his  release  from  captivity,  193,  60. 

literature  of,  164,  167. 
Jehoiakim,  106-109,  113,  160-163. 

date  of  his  submission,  163. 

literature  of,  160-164. 
Jehoram  (Joram),  of  Israel,  137,  345. 

of  Judah,  137. 
Jehoshaphat,  137  f.,  346. 
Jehovah,    usage    of,    in    Hex.,    13     ff., 
17  f. 

in  Psal.,  225  ff.,  267,  271,  303,  323. 

in  popular  conception,  126,  n.'. 
Jehovist  (Yah wist),  14,  24,  n.i. 
Jehovistic  source  (J)  in  Hex.,  13  ff.,  20  ff., 
30-44. 

place  of  origin,  16. 

date  of,  20  ff. 

combination  with  E,  23  f.,  154. 
Jehu,  139  ff.,  337,  344  f. 
Jeremiah,  his  attitude  to  the  Chaldeans, 
180  f.,  183. 

his  attitude  to  idols,  180  f. 

psalms  attributed  to,  166. 


INDEX  C 


375 


Jeremiah,   Book  of,    105-111,    156-169, 
170  f.,  190-193. 
method  of  compilation  of,  86  f.,  105, 

cf.  163. 
divisions  and  dates  of,  105  Cf.,  156  fif., 

170  f.,  179-181,  190  ff.,  195  fif. 
biographical  and  historical  sections  of, 
85,  86,  n.3,  105,    161  f.,  167,  170  f., 
190  ff.,  193. 
later  additions  to,  106  f..  Ill,   157  ff., 
161    ff.,  167   f.,    179-181,  195-199, 
265,  307  f. 
cf.  Deut.,  106,  127. 
cf.  Obad.,  162,  213  f 
cf.  Job,  237. 
Jeroboam  I,  133. 

literature  of,  134. 
Jeroboam  II,  96,  132,  141,  143,  347  f. 

literature  of,  141  fif. 
Jerusalem,  captures  of,  105,  110  f.,  115, 
163,  168  f.,  192,  301,  316,  319,  324, 
349  f. 
Job,  Book  of,  235-241,  270-273,  cf.  292  f. 
original  book  of,  166,  241,  256,  271. 
evidence   for    date    of    present    book, 

235  fif.,  256,  270. 
religious  ideas  of,  238  fif. 
Job  as  a  type,  237  f . 
later  additions  to,  241,  271  S. 
cf.  Prov.,  239. 
cf.  Isa.  40  fif.,  237,  239. 
cf.  Mai.,  239. 

cf.  other  O.  T.  literature,  237,  239. 
Joel,  Book  of,  217-220,  268,  cf.  256. 
evidence  for  date  of,  217  ff.,  256,  268. 
pre-exilic  conclusion,  217  f. 
post-exilic  conclusion,  218  f. 
theory   of   composite    character,    220, 

268. 
relation  to  other  literature,  220,  cf .  215. 
Jonah,  Book  of,  279-281,  302  f. 

classification  as  literature,  279,  292  f. 
e\ddence  for  date  of,  265,  279  f.,  302  f. 
message  of,  279  f. 
relation  to  other  literature,  280. 
Joseph,  date  of,  32  f.,  338  f. 
Joseph  Psalms,  271. 
Josephus,  77,  94,  163,  269,  274,  301,  314- 

317,  324,  341,  n.2,  349. 
Joshua,  Book  of.     See  Hexateuch. 
sources  of,  13  ff.,  19,  41  ff.,  267. 
separation  from  Pent.,  25,  268. 
Joshua,    Song   of    (Josh.    10:12&-13o), 

41-43. 
Josiah,  103  f.,  105  f.,  107,  155  ff. 
reforms  of,  104  f.,  123  f.,  156. 


Josiah  —  Continued 

influence  of  Deut.  on,  123  f. 

literature  of,  156-159. 
Jotham,  93  f.,  143.  145,  347. 

literature  of,  144  f. 
Jotham,  Fable  of  (Judg.  9 :  8-20),  50  f. 
Judas  MaccabsBus,  317,  cf.  298. 
Judges,   Book  of,    10  f.,   41^4,   45-47, 
50-53. 

divisions  and  date  of,  45  ff.,  50  ff. 

prophetic  element  in,  7,  11,  41  ff.,  46  f., 
50  ff.,  134. 

Deut.  element  in,  7,  10  f.,  45  ff.,  50  f., 
161,  193. 

priestly  element  in,  47,  51-53,  267. 

chronological  problem  of,  46,  51  f.,  343. 
Judgments.     See  Book  of  Covenant. 

Karkar,  battle  of,  138  f.,  337,  345. 
Kings,  Books  of,   2  f.,   55-62,  81  ff„  85, 
133-168,  170  f.,  190-194. 
cf.  Sam.,  55,  n.*. 
sources  of,  55  ff.,  81  f.,  134  ff.,  170  f., 

191  ff. 
prophetic  element  in,  3,  56  ff.,  82,  138 

ff.,  142,  149. 
Deut.  element  in,  5  f.,  55  f.,  60  ff.,  82, 

123,  134-166,  191,  193  f. 
priestly  element  in,  55,  62,  82,  267  f. 
dates  of  compilation  of,  60  ff.,  161,  166, 

193. 
synchronisms  in,  62,  345  f. 
Kingdoms  in  Dan.,  319  f . 
Korahite  Psalms,  69,  227,  231  f.,  237, 

269,  322. 
Korahites  in  Chr.,  232. 

Lamech,  Song  of  (Gen.  4  :  23  f.),  30,  51. 
Lamentations,   Book  of,   181-183,    193- 
195,  270,  322. 
poetical   structure    and    divasions    of, 

181. 
evidence  for  date  of,  181  f.,  193,  195, 

270,  322. 

Jeremiah  not  the  author  of,  182  f . 
Law,  transmission  of,  28  f.,  246  f. 

development  of,  241-248,  cf.   124  fif., 
186  ff. 

references  in  prophecy  to,  21,  28. 

references  in  Prov.  to,  121. 

in  narrative  form,  9. 

of  release.  127. 
Legend,  definition  of,  8. 
Levites,  their  relation  to  priests :  — 

in  Deut.,  126,  242. 

in  H,  186  f. 


376 


INDEX  C 


Levites  —  Continued 

in  P,  242. 

in  Ezek.,  242  f.,  cf.  186  f. 

in  Mai.,  208,  245. 
Levites  and  priests,  cf.  Carites,  5. 
Levites  and  singers  in  Chr.,  Ezra-Neh., 
204. 

cf.  in  Psal.,  231  f. 
Leviticus,  Book  of.     See  Priestly  Code 
and  Law  of  Holiness. 

narrative  material  in,  36. 

legal  material  in,  193  f.,  264-266. 
Literary  parallels,  argument  from,  237. 
Little  horn  in  Dan.,  319  f. 
Lysias,  317. 

Maccabean  Psalms,  68,  233  f.,  318. 

struggle,    315-317,    319-321,    cf.    289, 
293,  295-298. 

its  relation  to  Chr.,  67. 

relation  of  Dan.  to,  295  ff.,  319  ff. 

relation  of  Esth.  to,  293. 

relation  of,  to  Canon,  323  f. 
Magnesia,  battle  of,  315,  321. 
Malachi,  Book  of,  206-208,  255  f. 

anonymous  character  of,  206  f. 

evidence  for  date  of,  207  f.,  255-257, 
259,  264. 

later  additions  to,  256. 

relation  to  D  and  P,  208,  246. 

cf.  Job,  239. 
Manasseh,  102,  127  f.,  154  f.,  349,  n.2,  351. 

rebellion  of,  155. 

literature  of,  154  f. 
Marriage  customs  in  modern  Syria,  304, 

cf.  332. 
Marriage    with    heathen    (and  divorce), 
207  f.,  256  f.,  cf.  Ruth,  250  f.,  279. 
Mattathias,  317. 
Meal  offering,  245. 
Medes,  112,  177,  179,  cf.  296  f.  and  319 

(in  Dan.). 
Megiddo,  battle  of,  156. 
Megilloth  (=  the  Five  RoUs),  322. 
Menahem,  143,  145,  337,  347  f.,  cf.  91. 
Menelaus,  316. 
Meribbaal,  78. 
Merneptah,  35,  340  f. 
Merodach-baladan,  150,  178. 
Micah,  Book  of,  100-103,  146,  150-155. 

divisions  and  dates  of,  100  fT.,  146  ff. 

later  additions  to,  102  f.,  152  ff.,  154  f., 
253,  307. 
Midrash,  definition  of,  66;   cf.  31,   170, 
202. 

of  the  Book  of  the  Kings,  64-66. 


Mishnah,  language  of,  288,  cf.  281. 
Moab,  95  f.,  221,  250. 
Moabite  stone,  139,  334,  n.i,  345. 
Monotheism,  120,  126,  n.s,  313. 
Months,    Babylonian    names    of,     205, 

cf.  115,  168,  171. 
Mordecai,  291  f. 
Moses,  date  of,  cf.  Exodus. 

name  of,  in  headings  of  Pent.,  13,  n.'. 

relation  to  JE  narrative,  22. 

relation  to  JE  legal  material,  37  f. 

relation  to  Deut.,  129  f. 

relation  to  P,  247  f . 

Blessing  of  (Deut.  33),  131  f.,  141. 

Song  of  (Deut.  32:  1-43),  183  f.,  193, 
265. 

Song  of  Triumph  of   (Ex.   15:1-18), 
35  f.,  73,  83,  197,  265. 
Musical  terms  in  Psal.,  225,  229  f. 
Musician,  the  chief,  229. 
Myth,  explanation  of,  8. 

Nabateans,  207,  212  f. 

Nabonassar,  335. 

Nabonidus,  296,  cf.  177. 

Nabopolassar,  113,  163,  349. 

Nadab,  133. 

Nahum,  Book  of,  112-113,  157-159. 

divisions  and  date  of,  112,  157  ff. 

later  additions  to,  113,  159,  308. 
Nathan,  Parable  of  (2  Sam.  12 :  1-4),  78, 

cf.  9. 
Nature  Psalms,  267. 
Nebuchadrezzar,    113,    163,    168,    296, 

349  f. 
Necho  II  (Pharaoh),  156,  159. 
Nehemiah,   date  of  and  governorships, 
208,  260-263. 

Memoirs  of,  8,  201  ff.,  261  ff.,  265. 

reforms  of,  244,  250,  327  ff. 

Book  of.     See  Ezra-Neh. 
Nineveh,  103,  112,  159,  280. 
Noah,  Blessing  of  (Gen.  9 :  25-27),  30. 
No-Amon  (=  Thebes),  112,  159. 
Numbers,  Book  of.     See  Hexateuch. 

narrative  material  in  (JE,  P),  36-41. 

legal  material  in,  264,  266. 
Numerical  proverbs,  286,  310. 

Obadiah,  Book  of,  212-215,  264. 

divisions  of  and  date,  212  ff.,  259,  264, 
cf.  191  f. 

relation  to  Jer.  49,  213  f.,  162. 

Joel,  215,  220. 
Omri,  135  f.,  345. 
Onias  II  (High  Priest),  314. 


INDEX  C 


377 


Onias  III  (High  Priest),  315  f.,  320. 
Oppression,  Egyptian,  34,  340  f. 
Order  of  O.  T.  books,  Jewish,  1,  n.>. 
in  E.  v.,  X. 

value  of  chronological  rearrangement, 
viii-xi. 
Ordinances    (=  Judgments).     See  Book 

of  Covenant. 
Osnappar,  259. 

P,  meaning  of  symbol,  17,  241. 

P8,  V^,  ps,  pt,  meaning  of  symbols,  266. 

Parables,  9,  78,  cf.  339. 

Pasebchanu  II,  83. 

Passover,  18,  34,  124,  263. 

Pekah,  146,  148,  347-349. 

Pekahiah,  143,  145  f.,  348  f. 

Penitential  Psalms,  267. 

Pentateuch,  post-Mosaic  references  in,  22. 

structure  of.     Cf.  Hexateuch. 

completion  of,  267. 

cf.  Samaritan  Pent.,  267. 
Persians,  177  ff.,  254  ff.,  273  f. 
Persian  kings,  official  titles  of,  67,  203. 
Persian  words  in  O.  T.,  282,  288,  291, 

294  f. 
Personification,  use  of,  176,  cf.  284,  314. 
Philistines,  76,  95. 
Plagues,  89,  cf.  34. 
PiUars,  125. 
Pithom,  34. 

Poetry,  cf.  early  narratives,  29. 
Poll-tax,  248. 
Pre-dating,  344  n.^ 
Prediction,  86,  173  f.,  296,  299,  321. 

literary,  9. 
Priestly  blessing  (Num.  6:  22-27),  37. 
Priestly  chronology,  339. 

Code,  17  f.,  241-248. 

Code,  narrative  element  of,  25,  30-42, 
cf.  267  f: 

Code,  legal  element  in,  263-266. 

Code,  characteristics  and  date  of,  17  f., 
23,  195,  241  ff.,  247  f.,  256. 

Code,  antiquity  of  its  phraseology,  28  f . 

Code,  combination  with  JED,  25,  265, 
cf.,  245. 

Code,  combination  with  H,  188  f.,  194. 

Code,  different  strata  in,  18,  266. 

Code,  later  modifications  of,  248,  266. 

Code,  its  relation  to  JE,  23. 

Code,  its  relation  to  Deut.,  241  ff. 

Code,  its  relation  to  H,  186  f.,  194, 
243. 

Code,  its  relation  to  Ezek.,  242  f. 

Code,  its  relation  to  Mai.,  245,  cf.  208. 


Priestly  Code  —  Continued 

Code,  its  relation  to  Moses,  247  f . 
Code,  its  influence  on  other  literature, 

245,  cf.  63,  67,  201  ff. 
Priestly  institutions,  allusions  to  in  the 

older  literature,  243  f.,  246. 
Priestly  narratives,  in  Pent.,   17  f.,  23, 

30-41,  cf.  5. 
in  Josh.,  41-44,  cf.  267. 
in  Judg.,  47,  51-53,  cf.  267. 
in  Sam.,  48,  54,  74-79,  cf.  267. 
in  Ki.,  55,  62,  82,  134  ff.,  cf.  267  f 
in  Chr.,  63  f.,  66  f.,  134  ff.,  245. 
in  Ezra-Neh.,  201  ff.,  245,  253  ff. 
cf.  Ruth,  250. 
Priestly  office,  development  of,   125  f., 

186  f.,  243-247. 
Priestly  revisions  in  Gen.-Ki.,  265-268. 
Prophetic  narratives,  in  general,  5  f. 
in  Hex.,  13-16,  20-22,  24  f.,  cf.   30  ff. 
in  Hex.,  sources  and  dates  of,  13  ff., 

20-24,  142,  154. 
in  Hex.,  combination  with  D  and  P, 

24  f.,  193,  265. 
in  Hex.,  relation  to  other  writings,  21- 

24,  40  f. 
in  Hex.,  legislation  in,  36-38,  cf.    124 

ff.,  129,  158,  186,  242-246. 
in  Hex.,  poems  in,  29  f.,  35  f.,  3^-43, 

72  f.,  83  f.,  131  f.,  141,  183  f.,  193, 

197,  265. 
in  Judg.,  46  f.,  50-53,  134. 
in  Sam.,  48  f.,  53  f.,  74-79,  135  f.,  152. 
in  Ki.,  56-59,  82,  138,  142,  149. 
Prophets,  their  primary  mission,  173. 
as  reformers  and  statesmen,  86. 
as  predictors,  86,  173  f.,  cf.  296 
in  Chr.,  63. 
Former,  308. 
Latter,  308. 
Minor,  309  f. 
Prophets,  writings  of :  — 

historical  value  of,  x-xi,  12,  85  f.,  200. 

cf.  170. 
characteristics  of,  85-88,  cf.  173  f. 
when  and  how  composed,  86  f. 
growth  of  esteem  for,  309. 
influence  on  Deut.,  126  f. 
apocalyptic    element    in,    98   f.,    219, 

221  f.,  277,  305. 
predictive  element   in,  86,  173  f.,  cf. 

296,  299,  321. 
later  additions  to,  87  f.,  306-308. 
Proverbs,  Book  of,  72,  116-122,  283-287. 

310-314. 
divisions  of,  116. 


378 


INDEX  C 


Proverbs,  Book  of  —  Continued 

significance  of  headings,  117,  120,  283. 
age  of  compilation,  287,  312,  cf.  270. 
relation  of  Solomon  to,  81,  116  f.,  119, 

121,  313. 
evidence  for  pre-exilic  dating,  118-122, 

cf.  313. 
evidence  for  post-exilic  dating,  117  f., 

121  f.,  313. 
relation  to  other  writings,  121  f.,  239. 
1-9,  date  of,  270,  283-286,  310  f.,  312  f. 
1-9,  conception  of  wisdom  in,  284. 
1-9,  insertions  in,  311. 
1-9,  literary  parallels  with,  285  f. 
10 :  1-22  :  16,  date  of,  81,  116-120,  157, 

310,  313. 
10 :  1-22 :  16,    references    to    king   in, 

118,  n.i,  119,  121  f. 
22  :  17-24  :  22,    date    and    authorship 

of,  122,  310-314. 
24  :  23-34,  date  of,  122,  310-314. 
25-29,  date  of,  81,  120  £f.,  152,  310, 

313  f. 
30-31,  divisions  and  date  of,  286  f., 

310  f.,  312,  314. 
Psalms,  68-72,  130  f .     See  also  Psalter, 
superscriptions,  value  of,  68-70. 
editorial  additions  to,  266  f. 
question  of  Davidic  psalms,  69  S. 
classifications  of  such,  71,  79-81. 
assigned  to  Solomon,  81. 
pre-exilic  groupings,  136,  146  f.,  151  f., 

166,  cf.  130  f. 
assigned  to  Jeremiah,  166. 
exilic  groupings,  184,  194,  196  f. 
of  Persian  period,  253,  264  f.,  270. 
Maccabean  groupings,  68,  318,  233  f. 
Hallel  groups,  228-230,  323,  cf .  233,  n.K 
of  Degrees  (Ascents),  228,  233,   303, 

323. 
Penitential,  267. 
other  groups,  267,  271,  323. 
Psalter,  224-234,  264,  269,  271,  302  f., 

322  f.     Cf .  also  Psalms, 
liturgical   purpose  of,  228   ff.,  cf.  68, 

149,  162. 
divisions  of,  224  ff. 
musical  titles  in,  225,  229. 
gradual  growth  of,  225  f. 
steps  in  formation  of,  226  ff. 
evidence  for  post-exilic  date  of,  228- 

230. 
dates  of  divisions,  230  ff.,  264,  269, 

302,  322. 
date  of  final  compilation  of,  322,  cf. 

232  ff. 


Psalter  —  Continued 

relation  to  Psalms  of  Solomon,  234. 

cf .  LXX,  233  f. 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  234. 
Psammetichus,  335. 

Ptolemy,  Canon  of,  163,  334-337,  351  f. 
Ptolemy  I,  Soter,  301,  305,  320. 
Ptolemy  II,  III,  320,  303. 
Ptolemy  IV,  Philopator,  315,  320  f. 
Ptolemy  V,  Epiphanes,  314  f.,  321. 
Ptolemy  VI,  Philometor,  321. 
Ptolemies,  conflicts  with  the  Seleucidse, 
301,  304,  315,  320  f. 

relation  to  the  Jews,   232,   277,  301, 
304  f. 
Pul  (=  Pulu).     See  Tiglath-pileser  IV. 

Qoheleth  =  Ecclesiastes. 
Queen  mother,  109. 

R^,  meaning  of  symbol,  19,  25,  46  f.,  48  f. 

RP^,  meaning  of  symbol,  55,  61  f. 

RJE,  meaning  of  symbol,  24. 

R^,  meaning  of  symbol,  26,  47. 

Kabbah,  capture  of,  78. 

Rameses  II,  34,  340  f. 

Rameses  III,  35,  340  f. 

Ramman-nirari  IV,  140  f. 

Raphia,  battle  of,  303,  315. 

Rechabites,  109. 

Rehoboam,  133-135. 

Release,  law  of,  127. 

Restoration,  double,  meaning  of,  239. 

Restoration  of  the  Jews,  254  f.,  268  f. 

Resurrection  and  judgment,  222  f.,  295. 

Reubenites,  capture  of,  305  f . 

Round  numbers,  43,  83,  334,  341-343, 

348. 
Ruth,  Book  of,  1,  n.i,  52  f.,  249-251,  264. 

Book  of,  pre-exilic  basis  of,  52  f. 

Book  of,  evidence  for  date  of,  249-251, 
264. 

Book  of,  purpose  of,  250  f. 

Book  of,  relation  to  P,  250. 

Sacrifices  and  feasts.     See  Feasts. 
Samaria,  capture  of,  etc.,  101,  121,  134, 
148,   306,   337,    344,    n.i,   346,  348, 
350. 
after  722  b.c,  101,  259. 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  267. 
Samaritans,  147,  210  f.,  256-258. 
Samuel,  judgeship  of,  54. 
narratives  of,  53  f.,  152. 
Books  of,  47-49,  53  f.,  74-79,  135  f., 
152. 


INDEX  C 


379 


Samuel  —  Continued 

Books  of,  cf.  Kings,  47,  n.*,  55,  n.* 
Books  of,  prophetic  sources  in  and  rela- 
tive date,  47  S.,  53  f.,  74  f.,  76-79, 
135  f.,  152. 
Books  of,  Deut.  element  in,  48,  54,  75- 

78. 
Books  of,  priestly  element  in,  48,  54, 
74,  78,  267. 

Sanctuaries,  local  (high  places),  6,  22,  38, 
56,  59,  125  f.,  126  n.3,  128  f.,  187  f., 
243. 

Sargon,  94-97,  101,  148,  150,  336  f. 

Satan,  238. 

Saul,  74-76,  343. 

narratives  of,  48,  74  f.,  135  f„  152. 

Scipio,  Lucius  Cornelius,  321. 

Scripture,  appeal  to,  216. 

Scythian  invasion,  104,  106. 

Selah,  usage  of,  225,  229. 

Seleucidae,  conflicts  with  the  Ptolemies, 
301,  304,  315  f.,  320  f. 

Seleucidae,  relation  of  Jews  to,  301,  315- 
317,  319-321. 

Seleucus  I,  II,  III,  320. 

Seleucus  IV,  315,  321. 

Sennacherib,   invasion  by,  95-100,   102, 
150,  337,  349-351. 
assassination  of,  150. 

Sepharad  (Obad.  20),  215. 

Septuagint  readings,  cf .  Hebrew  text,  26, 
n.2,  62,  67,  74,  n.2,  78,  82,  110  f.,  118, 
162  f.,  167  f.,  170  f.,  179,  182  f.,  192, 
206,  225,  229,  248,  322,  340,  341,  n.2, 
342,  n.2,  343,  cf.  232-234. 
Psalter,  cf.  Hebrew,  233  f. 

Servant  of  Jehovah,  poems  of,  176  f., 
194,  198  f.,  240,  256,  cf.  238. 

Shallum,  143. 

Shalmaneser  III,  138-140,  345. 

Shalmaneser  IV,  336. 

Shalmaneser  V,  94  f.,  148,  348,  n.2. 

Shechem,  attack  on  by  Reuben  and  Sim- 
eon, 44,  53. 

Shema,  286. 

Sheol,  285. 

Shishak,  83,  135,  217,  344. 

Sidon,  destruction  of,  223,  274. 

Sihon,  Song  of  Triumph  over  (Num.  21 : 
27b-30).  39-41. 

Simon  Maccabaeus,  317. 

Singers,  Temple,  228-232,  cf.  204,  70. 

So,  of  Egypt,  148,  348,  n.2. 

Solomon,  81-84. 

relation  to  Proverbs,  116  f.,  119,  121, 
313. 


Solomon  —  Continued 
literature  of,  81,  83  f. 
cf.  Eccles.,  288,  289  f. 
cf.  Psalms  of,  234. 
Song  of  Solomon,  Book  of,  281-283,  302- 
304,  330-332. 
evidence  for  date  of,  281  ff.,  302. 
canonicity  of,  283,  324. 
marriage-songs  theory,  304. 
shepherd-hypothesis,  304,  330-332. 
Syriac  (Peshitto)  readings,  78,  172,  182, 

192. 
Syrian  conflicts  with  Israel,  89,   138  f., 

140  f.,  cf.  217 
Syro-Ephraimitish  invasion,  91,  94,  98 
f.,  cf.  147  f.,  347. 


Targum  of  Jonathan,  206. 

Tarshish,  ships  of,  93. 

Taunt-song.     See  Elegy. 

Tel-el-Amarna  tablets,  35. 

Temple,  pre-exilic,  83,  107  f.,  128,  168, 

187,  341. 
Temple,    post-exilic,    218    f.,    254-257, 

260,  298,  305,  316  f. 
sources  of  narrative,   58  f.,   82,    140, 

147,  155  f. 
Theocratic  Psalms,  323. 
Tiglath-pileser  IV,  91,  145,  147  f.,  155, 

347,  348,  n.i,  349. 
Tirhaka,  150. 
Tithe,  law  of,  248. 
Traditional  material,  8  f.,  cf.  339  f. 
Trito-Isaiah.     See  Isaiah. 
Tyre,  223,  cf.  94. 


Umman-Manda,  159. 

Unleavened  Bread,  Feast  of,  18,  34,  cf. 

124,  263. 
Unto  this  day,  interpretation  of,  61. 
Uzziah,  93,  141,  143,  347,  cf.  305. 

Walls  of  Jerusalem,  258  f.,  262. 

Wars  of  Jehovah,  Book  of,  40  f.,  43,  61, 

83 
Well,    Song   of    (Num.  21 :  17-18),   39- 

41. 
Wisdom  literature,  235,  n.i. 

personification  of,  284,  314, 
Wise  men,  285. 
Words.     See  Book  of  Covenant. 


Xerxes,  257  f.,  291  f..  297. 


380 


INDEX  C 


Zechariah,  143. 
Zechariah,  Book  of  :  — 

1-8,  divisions  and  dates  of,  206,  252- 

255,  cf.  196. 
9-14,  evidence  for  date  of,  275-279, 

302-305. 
9-14,  style  of,  cf.  1-8,  276. 
9-14,   theory  of  pre-exilic  origin  of, 

276  f. 

9-14,  theory  of  post-exilic  origin  of, 

277  f.,  302  ff.,  322,  cf.  256. 

9-14,  theory  of  composite  character  of, 

278  f..  303. 


Zechariah,  Book  of  —  Continued 

possible  historical  allusions  in,  304  f. 
Zedekiah,  110-111,  115,  164  ff. 

his  rebellion  and  the  outcome,  168. 

literature  of,  164-169. 
Zephaniah,  Book  of,  103-104,  156  f. 

divisions  and  dates  of,  103  f.,  156  f. 

later  additions  to,  104,  157,  196,  253, 
307. 
Zerah,  136. 
Zeus,  altar  to,  316. 
Zimri,  135. 


INDEX   D 
Citations  from  Authors^ 


Adeney,  W.  F. 

Storv   and   character  of   Esther,  291, 
292  f. 
Bacon,  B.  W. 

Religious  emphasis  of  P,  18. 
Batten,  L.  W. 

Light  on  period,  537-432  B.C.,  from 
prophetic,  etc.  literature,  200. 

Sources  of  Ezra-Neh.,  201. 
Bennett,  W .  H. 

The  style  of  P,  17. 

Hebrew  elegy,  181. 

The  Serv^ant  poems,  198. 

The  style  of  Joel,  220. 

On  Pss.  84-89,  232. 

Priestly  Code  as  Mosaic,  247. 

Prov.  1-9,  284. 

The  spirit  of  Eccles.,  289. 
Bewer,  J. 

Obad.,  cf.  Jer.  49,  214. 

Citation  by  Joel  of  Obad.,  215. 
Breasted,  J.  H. 

Egyptian  chronology,  335,  n.*. 
Briggs,  C  A. 

Doxologies  of  the  Psal.,  224  f. 
Budde,  K. 

Date  of  Deut.,  128. 

Deut.  as  Mosaic,  129. 
Carpenter  and  Har ford-Batter  shy. 

JE  implied  in  Amos,  etc.,  21. 

Antiquity  of  P's  phraseology,  28  f. 

Local  sanctuaries,  126. 

Legislation  implied  in  Neh.  8,  244. 

Relation  of  Mai.  to  P,  245. 

Greek  words  in  Dan.,  294. 
Chapman,  A.  T. 

Characteristics    of    Biblical    writers, 
14,  n.i. 

Relation  of  H  to  Ezek.,  187. 


Charles,  R.  H. 

Egyptian     campaigns     of     Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  316,  n.i. 
Cheyne,  T.  K. 

The  Israel  of  Deut.,  128. 

Date  of  Isa.  24-27,  223. 

Definition  of  the  Psalter,  229. 

The  date  of  Job,  239  f. 

Greek  influence  in  Eccles.,  289. 
Cornill,  C.  H. 

On  RD,  23,  n.2. 

Centralization  of  worship,  126,  n.3. 

Date  of  Joel,  219. 

Kind  of  unity  in  P,  266. 
Curtis,  E.  L. 

O.  Test,  chronologj',  135. 

Religious   conceptions    of   Dan.,   295, 
299. 

Lessons  of  the  book,  298. 

Assyrian  method  of  dating,  344,  n.^ 
Davidson,  A.  B. 

On  Judges,  10  f. 

Idealization  of  past  events,  10  f. 

Date  of  Nahum,  112. 

Dates  in  Ezekiel,  172. 

Order  of  Major  Prophets,  173. 

The  Christology  of  Isa.  40  ff.,  176. 

On  Jer.  50 :  1-51  :  58,  180. 

On  Isa.  56-66,  209. 

Job,  cf.  Isa.  40  ff.,  237. 

The  religious  tone  of  Eccles.,  289. 
Davison,  W.  T. 

Number  of  Davidic  psalms,  71. 

Date  of  Pss.  3-41,  230. 

The  questioning  spirit  in  Job,  236. 

Argument  from  literary  parallels,  237. 
Delitzsch,  Franz. 

On  Prov.  1-9,  286. 

The  language  of  Eccles.,  288. 


1  This  Index  does  not  contain  references  either  to  passages  where  the  substance 
of  a  wTiter's  opinion  is  given  or  to  different  scholars'  positions  on  critical  questions, 


which  are  so  frequently  referred  to  throughout  the  book, 
are  included  in  this  list. 

381 


Only  direct  quotations 


382 


INDEX  D 


Dillmann,  Aug. 

The  style  of  Deut.,  127. 
Driver,  S.  R. 

On  Ex.  15,  36. 

The  style  of  Ch.,  65. 

Definition  of  Midrash,  66. 

Davidic  psalms,  72. 

The  new  element  in  Deut.,  129. 

Pre-exilic  psalms,  131. 

Historical  presuppositions  in  Isa.  40 
ff.,  174. 

The  relation  of  H  to  Ezek.,  187. 

The  date  of  H,  188. 

Bring  back  captivity,  meaning  of,  219. 

Liturgical  background  of  Deut.,  242. 

The  date  of  P,  247. 

On  Ezra  7:  11-26,  257. 

On  Job  32-37,  273. 

Definition  of  haggada,  292,  n.i. 

The  linguistic  argument  in  Dan.,  295. 

On  Dan.  9  :  24-27,  320. 

Meaning  of  generation  in  Gen.,  333,  n.i. 

The  chronology  of  Gen.,  340. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

Definition  of  history,  7  f. 
Fisher,  G.  P. 

On  Gen.  1-3,  9. 
Gibson,  E.  C.  S. 

On  Job  32-37,  273,  n.K 
Gray,  G.  B. 

On  RJE  and  J2,  24,  n.i. 

Date  of  Saul  and  David  narratives,  49. 

Date  of  writing  of  Ezek.,  168,  n.^. 
Har ford-Batter  shy,  G. 

The  laws  of  H,  185,  188. 
Harper,  A. 

The  language  of  Song  of  Sol.,  281. 

Its  language  as  related  to  date,  283,  n.i. 
Harper,  W.  R. 

The  ethical  tone  of  E,  22. 
Kautzsch,  E. 

Book  of  Chronicles  of  Kings  of  Judah, 
etc.,  60. 

Editorial  liberty  in  O.  Test.,  87  f. 

Deut.  as  Mosaic,  129  f. 

Pre-exilic  psalms,  131. 

The  Baruch  narratives,  193,  n.^. 

Solomonic  proverbs,  313. 
Kennedy,  A.  R.  S. 

OnNah.  1,  159. 

On  the  High  Priest,  186,  n.\ 
Kent,  C.  F. 

The  laws  in  Ex.  34,  37. 

The  Saul  and  David  narratives,  49. 

The  meaning  of  "To  David,"  69,  n.2. 

The  Song  of  Sol.,  283,  n.i. 


Kirkpatrick,  A.  F. 

Date  of  Psalms  3^1,  230. 

The  Psalms  of  Solomon,  234. 
Kittcl,  R. 

Citations  from  JE,  21. 

The  sources  of  JE,  28. 
Konig,  Ed.  ^ 

The  message  of  Jonah,  279. 
McCurdy,  J.  F. 

Characteristics  of  J,  15. 

Officiators  at  sacrifices,  126. 

The  ethical  tone  of  Deut.,  127. 

Exilic  psalms,  184. 
McFadyen,  J.  E. 

On  JE,  21. 

The  prophet  in  Chr.,  63. 

The    fundamental    interest    in    Chr., 
64. 

Ezra's  Memoirs,  202. 

The  influence  of  Isa.  53,  240. 

On  Ezra  5:1-6:  18,  254. 
McNeile,  A.  H. 

P's  chronology,  339,  n.^. 
Marti,  K. 

Egyptian  chronology,  335. 

Canon  of  Ptolemy,  351  f. 
Mitchell,  H.  G. 

On  Zech.  9-14,  303. 
Moore,  G.  F. 

On  Gen.  14,  31. 

The  significance  of  J  and  E,  47. 

On  1  Ki.  12,  134,  n.^. 

On  Isa.  40  £f.,  176,  n.i. 

The  date  of  H,  188. 

On  Isa.  24-27,  220,  n.3. 

Time  represented  by  P,  248. 

The  order  in  Ezra-Neh.,  262. 
Noldeke,  Th. 

The  style  of  Esther,  291. 
Nowack,  W. 

On  Zech.  9-14,  278. 

Absence  of  Greek  influence  in  Prov. 
8,  284,  n.3. 

The  date  of  Prov.,  285. 
Paton,  L.  B. 

On  Gen.  14,  31. 

On  Zerah,  136. 
Peake,  A.  S. 

Content  of  roll  (Jer.  36),  87,  n.». 

On  Jer.  50 :  1-51 :  58,  180. 
Peters,  J.  P. 

Centralization  of  worship  and  mono- 
theism, 126,  n.3. 
Robinson,  H.  W. 

On  2  Ki.  23  :  8  f.,  129,  n.i. 

The  spirit  of  Deut.  33,  132. 


INDEX   D 


383 


Ryle,  H.  E. 

The  process  of  compilation,  25,  n.'. 
Sanders,  F.  K. 

The  kingdom  of  Hazrak,  141,  n.'. 

On  Zech.  9-14,  278. 
Sayce,  A.  H. 

King  of  Nineveh  in  Jonah,  280. 

Chaldeans  in  Dan.,  296. 

Significance  of  forty  years,  334,  n.'. 

Early  O.  Test,  chronology,  338,  n.^. 
Schmidt,  N. 

On  Josh.  10:  12  f.,  43. 
Skinner,  J. 

Definition  of  legend,  8. 

Definition  of  history,  8,  n.'. 

Transmission  of  early  narratives,  28,  n.i. 

On  Gen.  14,  31. 

On  R^  in  Kings,  62. 

Synchronisms  in  Kings,  62. 

On  Isa.  11:  10-16,  153. 

On  Isa.  32,  153. 

The  style  of  Isa.  40-55,  175  f. 

Date  of  Isa.  24-27,  223. 

Date  of  Samaritan  Pent.,  267,  n.^. 
Smith,  G.  A. 

On  authenticity,  88. 

On  Mic.  6:1-7:  6,  103. 

On  pre-exilic  proverbs,  118. 


Smith,  G.  A.  —  Continued 

On  Isa.  24-27,  220. 
Smith,  H.  P. 

On  Deut.,  23  :  3,  250. 

The  unity  of  Zech.  9-14,  278. 
Smith,  J.  M.  P. 

On  Mic.  6  f.,  103. 
Smith,  W.  R. 

On  P,  18,  n.2. 

The  meaning  of  "To  David,"  70. 

On  Jer.  27:  1,  110. 

On  the  Psalter,  230. 
Sprott,  T.  H. 

Definition  of  myth,  8. 
Thatcher,  G.  W. 

Origin  of  Ruth,  53. 
Toy,  C.  H. 

Wisdom  in  Prov.  1-9,  284. 

Prov.  cf.  Ecclus.,  285. 

Date  of  compilation  of  Prov.,  287. 

Date  of  the  earlier  Prov.,  313. 
Wade,  G.  W. 

On  Isa.  24-27,  221,  n.'. 
Wellhausen,  J. 

Post-exilic  dates  of  psalms,  131. 

On  the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  234. 
Woods,  F.  H. 

Development  of  feasts,  242. 


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